Your search found 11 records
1 Silverman, A. I.; Akrong, M. O.; Amoah, Philip; Drechsel, Pay; Nelson, K. L. 2013. Quantification of human norovirus GII, human adenovirus, and fecal indicator organisms in wastewater used for irrigation in Accra, Ghana. Journal of Water and Health, 11(3):473-488.
Wastewater irrigation ; Wastewater treatment ; Health hazards ; Pathogenic viruses ; Feaces ; Microorganisms ; WHO / Ghana / Accra
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H046528)
(0.54 MB)
Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) is frequently used to estimate health risks associated with wastewater irrigation and requires pathogen concentration estimates as inputs. However, human pathogens, such as viruses, are rarely quantified in water samples, and simple relationships between fecal indicator bacteria and pathogen concentrations are used instead. To provide data that can be used to refine QMRA models of wastewater-fed agriculture in Accra, stream, drain, and waste stabilization pond waters used for irrigation were sampled and analyzed for concentrations of fecal indicator microorganisms (human-specific Bacteroidales, E. coli, Enterococci, thermotolerant coliform, and somatic and F+ coliphages) and two human viruses (adenovirus and norovirus genogroup II). E. coli concentrations in all samples exceeded limits suggested by the World Health Organization, and human-specific Bacteroidales was found in all but one sample, suggesting human fecal contamination. Human viruses were detected in 16 out of 20 samples, were quantified in 12, and contained 2–3 orders of magnitude more norovirus than predicted by norovirus to E. coli concentration ratios assumed in recent publications employing indicator-based QMRA. As wastewater irrigation can be beneficial for farmers and municipalities, these results should not discourage water reuse in agriculture, but provide motivation and targets for wastewater treatment before use on farms.
2 Drechsel, Pay; Keraita, B.; Amoah, Philip; Karg, H. 2014. Health risk management for safe vegetable irrigation. In Drechsel, Pay; Keraita, B. (Eds.) Irrigated urban vegetable production in Ghana: characteristics, benefits and risk mitigation. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). pp.180-198.
Health hazards ; Risk management ; Vegetable growing ; Wastewater irrigation ; Wastewater treatment ; Farmers ; Biological contamination ; Food consumption ; WHO ; Sanitation ; Pathogens ; Income / Ghana / Accra
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: IWMI Record No: H046611)
(869.97 KB)
This chapter presents approaches tested in Ghana to mitigate wastewater irrigation-related risks for consumers and farmers from microbial contamination. The recommended interventions follow the WHO approach concerning multiple barriers along the food chain. Factors that could support the uptake of safety measures are discussed.
3 Keraita, B.; Mateo-Sagasta Davila, Javier; Drechsel, Pay; Winkler, M.; Medlicott, K. 2015. Risk mitigation for wastewater irrigation systems in low-income countries: opportunities and limitations of the WHO guidelines. In Memon, F. A.; Ward, S. (Eds.). Alternative water supply systems. London, UK: IWA Publishing. pp.367-389.
Irrigation systems ; Wastewater irrigation ; Drip irrigation ; Sprinkler irrigation ; Risk management ; Developing countries ; Income ; WHO ; Guidelines ; Public health ; Health hazards ; Water quality ; Faecal coliforms ; Sedimentation ; Filtration ; Marketing / West Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H046780)
(0.69 MB)
4 Drechsel, Pay; Qadir, Manzoor; Wichelns, D. (Eds.) 2015. Wastewater: economic asset in an urbanizing world. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. 287p. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9545-6]
Wastewater treatment ; Water reuse ; Economic analysis ; Urbanization ; Sewage sludge ; Health hazards ; Pathogens ; Cost benefit analysis ; Finance ; Environmental risk assessment ; Ecosystem services ; Socioeconomic environment ; Agriculture ; Resource management ; Recycling ; Aquifers ; Groundwater recharge ; Industrial uses ; Businesses ; Models ; Energy consumption ; Nutrients ; Phosphorus ; Nitrogen ; Composting ; Water pollution ; Water quality ; WHO ; Metals ; Semimetals ; Salinity ; Gender ; Private sector ; Institutions ; Legislation ; Regulations ; Farmers ; Crops ; Landscape ; Irrigation ; Biogas ; Markets / Mexico / Cyprus / India / Australia / Iran / Bangalore / Amani Doddakere Lake / Mezquital Valley Aquifer / Ezousa Aquifer / Akrotiri Aquifer / Bolivar Aquifer / Mashhad Plain Aquifer
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: IWMI, e-copy SF Record No: H046957)
(0.28 MB)
5 Keraita, Bernard; Medlicott, K.; Drechsel, Pay; Mateo-Sagasta, Javier. 2015. Health risks and cost-effective health risk management in wastewater use systems. In Drechsel, Pay; Qadir, Manzoor; Wichelns, D. (Eds.). Wastewater: economic asset in an urbanizing world. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. pp.39-54.
Public health ; Health hazards ; Risk management ; Wastewater irrigation ; Water use ; Water quality ; Pathogens ; Pollutants ; Cost benefit analysis ; WHO
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy SF Record No: H046960)
6 Woldetsadik, D.; Drechsel, Pay; Keraita, B.; Itanna, F.; Erko, B.; Gebrekidan, H. 2017. Microbiological quality of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) irrigated with wastewater in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and effect of green salads washing methods. International Journal of Food Contamination, 4:1-9. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40550-017-0048-8]
Microbiological analysis ; Leaf vegetables ; Lettuces ; Wastewater irrigation ; Faecal coliforms ; Helminths ; WHO ; Contamination ; Irrigation water ; Risk reduction ; Bacteriological analysis ; Farmland ; Wastewater treatment ; Households ; Water pollution ; Water use / Ethiopia / Addis Ababa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047981)
http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186%2Fs40550-017-0048-8.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H047981.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H047981.pdf
(561 KB)
Background: In Addis Ababa, where irrigation water for vegetable production is commonly derived from the highly polluted Akaki river, information on microbial contamination of water and irrigated vegetable is scanty. An assessment was done to determine the microbiological quality of irrigation water and lettuce harvested from 10 urban farming sites of Addis Ababa. The efficacy of 5 lettuce washing methods were also assessed. A total of 210 lettuce and 90 irrigation water samples were analyzed for faecal coliform and helminth eggs population levels. Results: The mean faecal coliform levels of irrigation water ranged from 4.29-5.61 log10 MPN 100 ml-1, while on lettuce, the concentrations ranged from 3.46-5.03 log10 MPN 100 g-1. Helminth eggs and larvae were detected in 80% of irrigation water and 61% of lettuce samples. Numbers ranged from 0.9-3.1 eggs 1000 ml-1 and 0.8-3.7 eggs 100 g-1 wet weight for irrigation water and lettuce, respectively. The helminth eggs identified included those of Ascaris lumbricoides, Hookworm, Enterobius vermicularis, Trichuris trichiura, Taenia and Strongloyides larvae. Ascaris lumbricoides and Hookworm were most prevalent in both irrigation water and lettuce samples. Compared with the WHO recommendations and international standards, the faecal coliform and helminth eggs levels in irrigation water and lettuce samples exceeded the recommended levels. Irrespective of the tested washing methods, faecal coliform and helminth eggs levels were somehow reduced. Among the washing methods, potable tap water washing - rinsing (2 min) followed by dipping in 15 000 ppm vinegar solution for a minute supported the highest faecal coliorm reduction of 1.7 log10 units, whereas lowest reduction of 0.8 log10 units was achieved for the same procedure without vinegar. Conclusion: Compared with international standards, both faecal coliform and helminth eggs levels exceeded recommended thresholds in water and lettuce, but still in a potential risk range which can be easily mitigated if farmers and households are aware of the potential risk. Aside preventing occupational exposure, potential risk reduction programs should target households which have so far no guidance on how best to wash vegetables. The result of the present study suggest that the vinegar based washing methods are able to reduce faecal coliform towards low level while the physical washing with running water may help to substantially decrease potential risk of helminth parasitic infections.
7 Akoto, O.; Gyamfi, O.; Darko, G.; Barnes, V. R. 2017. Changes in water quality in the Owabi Water Treatment Plant in Ghana. Applied Water Science, 7(1):175-186. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-014-0232-4]
Water quality ; Waste water treatment plants ; Drinking water ; Water pollution ; Health hazards ; Chemicophysical properties ; Nutrients ; Bacteriological analysis ; Faecal coliforms ; Contamination ; WHO ; Guidelines ; Correlation analysis ; Reservoirs ; Heavy metals / Ghana / Kumasi / Owabi Water Treatment Plant
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048096)
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs13201-014-0232-4.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H048096.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H048096.pdf
(0.47 MB) (480 KB)
The study was conducted on the status of the quality of water from the Owabi water treatment plant that supplies drinking water to Kumasi, a major city in Ghana, to ascertain the change in quality of water from source to point-of-use. Physico-chemical, bacteriological water quality parameters and trace metal concentration of water samples from five different treatment points from the Owabi water treatment plant were investigated. The raw water was moderately hard with high turbidity and colour that exceeds the WHO guideline limits. Nutrient concentrations were of the following order: NH3\NO2 -\- NO3 -\PO4 3-\SO4 2- and were all below WHO permissible level for drinking water in all the samples at different stages of treatment. Trace metal concentrations of the reservoir were all below WHO limit except chromium (0.06 mg/L) and copper (0.24 mg/L). The bacteriological study showed that the raw water had total coliform (1,766 cfu/100 mL) and faecal coliform (257 cfu/100 mL) that exceeded the WHO standard limits, rendering it unsafe for domestic purposes without treatment. Colour showed strong positive correlation with turbidity (r = 0.730), TSS (r C 0.922) and alkalinity (0.564) significant at p\0.01. The quality of the treated water indicates that colour, turbidity, Cr and Cu levels reduced and fall within the WHO permissible limit for drinking water. Treatment process at the water treatment plant is adjudged to be good.
8 Liebe, J.; Mateo-Sagasta, Javier. 2017. Desarrollo de capacidades para un uso mas seguro y productivo de aguas residuales en agricultura en America Latina y el Caribe. In Spanish. [Capacity development for a safer and more productive use of wastewater in Latin America and the Caribbean]. In Mateo-Sagasta, Javier (Ed.). Reutilizacion de aguas para agricultura en America Latina y el Caribe: estado, principios y necesidades. Santiago, Chile: FAO. pp.57-65.
Capacity building ; Wastewater Management ; Water security ; Water productivity ; Water reuse ; Resource recovery ; Economic aspects ; Institutional development ; Policy ; Risk management ; WHO ; Guidelines ; Awareness raising / Latin America / Caribbean / Bolivia / Brazil
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048427)
(0.88 MB) (8.55 MB)
9 FAO; WHO. 2019. Meeting report on the joint FAO/WHO expert meeting in collaboration with OIE on foodborne antimicrobial resistance: role of the environment, crops and biocides. Rome, Italy: FAO; Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. 62p. (Microbiological Risk Assessment Series 34)
Antimicrobial resistance ; Bacteria ; Risk assessment ; Biological contamination ; Biocides ; Crop production ; Horticulture ; Food production ; Vegetables ; Food consumption ; Irrigation water ; Aquaculture ; Soils ; Environmental effects ; Public health ; FAO ; WHO
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049458)
(1.05 MB) (1.05 MB)
10 Zvobgo, L.; Do, P. 2020. COVID-19 and the call for ‘Safe Hands’: challenges facing the under-resourced municipalities that lack potable water access - a case study of Chitungwiza Municipality, Zimbabwe. Water Research X, 9:100074. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wroa.2020.100074]
COVID-19 ; Hand hygiene ; Water supply ; Drinking water ; Sustainable use ; Goal 6 Clean water and sanitation ; Water scarcity ; Water demand ; Infrastructure ; Water use ; Domestic water ; Households ; Urban areas ; Pandemics ; Public-private partnerships ; WHO ; Developing countries ; Case studies / Africa / Zimbabwe / Chitungwiza
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050152)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589914720300347/pdfft?md5=5a1c4ec9924ebf507621c32e0e51a45b&pid=1-s2.0-S2589914720300347-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H050152.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H050152.pdf
(1.76 MB) (1.76 MB)
Billions of people living in developing countries lack access to safe drinking water, not to mention water for handwashing, one of the most effective ways to contain the fast spreading novel coronavirus (COVID -19). The recent global spread of COVID-19 has fostered diverse initiatives such as the ‘Safe Hands’ challenge led by the World Health Organization. Individuals are encouraged to regularly wash their hands for 40–60 s under running water with soap. This call for ‘Safe Hands’ comes at a time when water insecurity and limited access to handwashing facilities in Africa is heightened. In this article, Chitungwiza city in Zimbabwe is used as a case study to assess the implications of the ‘Safe Hands’ challenge for poor municipalities in developing countries and characterize the challenges they face. To do so, interviews were conducted at water points/boreholes used by residents during Zimbabwe’s COVID-19 national lockdown. The calculation of water requirements for proper hand hygiene determined the capacity for water-stressed regions to effectively implement ‘Safe Hands’. On average, it was established that one person consumes an extra 4.5 L per day of water when they practice WHO ‘Safe Hands’ in the context of COVID-19. This increases domestic water demand in Chitungwiza by 9%. Due to water scarcity, people in Chitungwiza were experiencing challenges with practicing ‘Safe Hands’. With their ‘dry taps’ woes, they might not be able to meet the standards of this WHO challenge. Lack of soap also reduced the effectiveness of the ‘Safe Hands’ challenge. This paper proposes short- and long-term measures that would allow effective implementation of the ‘Safe Hands’ by means of sustainable potable water supply. These measures include extensive social awareness and temporary change of household water use behavior. Municipalities are recommended to establish public private partnerships (PPPs) to create immediate and long-term water investments. Structural and transformational reforms would enhance, through flexible planning, investments for both water infrastructure and governance. This narrative has the potential to improve the urban water systems resiliency against future pandemics.
11 Drechsel, Pay; Qadir, M.; Galibourg, D. 2022. The WHO guidelines for safe wastewater use in agriculture: a review of implementation challenges and possible solutions in the global south. Water, 14(6):864. (Special issue: Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse: Feature Papers) [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/w14060864]
Wastewater irrigation ; Agriculture ; Water reuse ; WHO ; Guidelines ; Risk assessment ; Risk reduction ; Awareness ; Behavioural changes ; Food safety ; Social marketing ; Wastewater treatment ; Treatment plants ; Water quality ; Health hazards ; Sanitation ; Monitoring / Ghana
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050975)
(0.97 MB) (988 KB)
Globally, the use of untreated, often diluted, or partly treated wastewater in agriculture covers about 30 million ha, far exceeding the area under the planned use of well-treated (reclaimed) wastewater which has been estimated in this paper at around 1.0 million ha. This gap has likely increased over the last decade despite significant investments in treatment capacities, due to the even larger increases in population, water consumption, and wastewater generation. To minimize the human health risks from unsafe wastewater irrigation, the WHO’s related 2006 guidelines suggest a broader concept than the previous (1989) edition by emphasizing, especially for low-income countries, the importance of risk-reducing practices from ‘farm to fork’. This shift from relying on technical solutions to facilitating and monitoring human behaviour change is, however, challenging. Another challenge concerns local capacities for quantitative risk assessment and the determination of a risk reduction target. Being aware of these challenges, the WHO has invested in a sanitation safety planning manual which has helped to operationalize the rather academic 2006 guidelines, but without addressing key questions, e.g., on how to trigger, support, and sustain the expected behaviour change, as training alone is unlikely to increase the adoption of health-related practices. This review summarizes the perceived challenges and suggests several considerations for further editions or national adaptations of the WHO guidelines.
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