Your search found 30 records
1 Rosenthal, W. D.; Srinivasan, R.; Arnold, J. 1993. A GIS-watershed hydrology model link to evaluate water resources of the Lower Colorado River in Texas. In Heatwole, C. D. (Ed.), Application of advanced information technologies: Effective management of natural resources: Proceedings of the 18-19 June 1993 Conference, Spokane, Washington: St. Joseph, MI, USA: ASAE. pp.260-266.
GIS ; Databases ; Watersheds ; Models ; River basins ; Water resources ; Sedimentation / USA / Texas / Lower Colorado River
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: 004 G000 HEA Record No: H015917)
2 Srinivasan, R.; Arnold, J. G. 1994. Integration of a basin-scale water quality model with GIS. Water Resources Bulletin, 30(3):453-462.
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: PER Record No: H016130)
3 Srinivasan, R.; Arnold, J. G.; Muttiah, R. S. 1995. Continental scale hydrologic modeling using GIS. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Water Quality Modeling, Kissimmee, FL, USA, 2-5 April 1995. 11p.
Hydrology ; Simulation models ; GIS ; Water resources ; Soils ; Assessment ; River basins ; Land use / USA
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: P 3890 Record No: H016882)
4 Arnold, J. G.; Williams, J. R.; Srinivasan, R.; King, K. W.; Griggs, R. H. 1994. SWAT: Soil and water assessment tool. Report. USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Grassland, Soil and Water Research Laboratory, Temple, TX, USA. 11p.
Simulation models ; Hydrology ; River basins ; Soils ; Water resources ; Assessment ; Water management ; Sedimentation ; Reservoirs ; Nitrogen ; Pesticide residues ; Crop production ; Evapotranspiration ; Climate / USA
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: P 3891 Record No: H016883)
5 Rosenthal, W. D.; Srinivasan, R.; Arnold, J. G. 1995. Alternative river management using a linked GIS-hydrology model. Transactions of the ASAE, 38(3):783-790.
GIS ; Hydrology ; Models ; Databases ; River basins ; Stream flow / USA / Texas / Lower Colorado River
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: P 4098 Record No: H017652)
6 Simonovic, S. P.; Srinivasan, R.. 1994. Explicit stochastic modelling of a reservoir for hydropower production. In Fontane, D. G.; Tuvel, H. N. (Eds.), Water policy and management: Solving the problems: Proceedings of the 21st annual conference, ASCE, Denver, Colorado, May 23-26, 1994. New York, NY, USA: ASCE. pp.368-371.
Reservoir operation ; Stochastic process ; Mathematical models ; Hydroelectric schemes ; Flood control
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: 333.91 G000 FON Record No: H019824)
7 Srinivasan, R.; Arnold, J. G.; Jones, C. A. 1998. Hydrologic modelling of the United States with the soil and water assessment tool. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 14(3):315-325.
Hydrology ; River basins ; Watersheds ; Water quality ; Runoff ; Sedimentation ; Simulation models ; Databases ; GIS ; Water resource management ; Land management ; Soil management ; Assessment / USA / Texas / Trinity River Basin / Richland Creek / Chambers Creek / Rio Grande Basin / Rio Bravo Basin
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: PER Record No: H023260)
8 Arnold, J. G.; Srinivasan, R.; Muttiah, R. S.; Allen, P. M. 1999. Continental scale simulation of the hydrologic balance. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 35(5):1037-1051.
Surface water ; Hydrology ; Models ; Water balance ; Simulation ; Evapotranspiration ; Plant growth ; GIS ; Aquifers ; Irrigated farming ; Databases ; Rainfall-runoff relationships / USA
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: PER Record No: H025350)
9 Chen, X.; Harman, W. L.; Magre, M.; Wang, E.; Srinivasan, R.; Williams, J. R. 2000. Water quality assessment with agro-environmental indexing of non-point sources, Trinity River Basin. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 16(4):405-417.
River basins ; Water quality ; Assessment ; Simulation models ; Environmental effects ; Cropping systems ; Tillage ; Crop yield ; Pastoralism ; Runoff ; Erosion ; Climate ; Rain ; Soil properties / USA / Texas / Trinity River Basin
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: P 5821 Record No: H028665)
10 Ward, F. A.; Young, R.; Lacewell, R.; King, J. P.; Frasier, M.; McGuckin, J. T.; DuMars, C.; Booker, J.; Ellis, J.; Srinivasan, R.. 2001. Institutional adjustments for coping with prolonged and severe drought in the Rio Grande Basin. Colorado Water Newsletter, June:4-7.
River basins ; Drought ; Water scarcity ; Water demand ; Water delivery ; Water use ; Reservoirs ; Models / USA / Colorado / New Mexico / Texas / Rio Grande Basin
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: P 5836 Record No: H028708)
11 Luzio, M. D.; Srinivasan, R.; Arnold, J. G. 2002. Integration of watershed tools and SWAT model into basins. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 38(4):1127-1141.
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: PER Record No: H031368)
12 Haverkamp, S.; Srinivasan, R.; Frede, H. G.; Santhi, C. 2002. Subwatershed spatial analysis tool: Discretization of a distributed hydrologic model by statistical criteria. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 38(6):1723-1733.
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: PER Record No: H033525)
13 Setegn, S. G.; Rayner, D.; Melesse, A. M.; Dargahi, B.; Srinivasan, R.; Worman, A. 2011. Climate change impact on agricultural water resources variability in the northern highlands of Ethiopia. In Melesse, A. M. (Ed.). Nile River Basin: hydrology, climate and water use. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. pp.241-265.
Climate change ; Hydrology ; Simulation models ; Stream flow ; Agriculture ; Water resources / Ethiopia
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: 551.483 G136 MEL Record No: H044032)
14 Dile, Y. T.; Karlberg, L.; Daggupati, P.; Srinivasan, R.; Wiberg, D.; Rockstrom, J. 2016. Assessing the implications of water harvesting intensification on upstream–downstream ecosystem services: a case study in the Lake Tana basin. Science of The Total Environment, 542:22-35. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.10.065]
Water harvesting ; Water requirements ; Water quality ; Water use ; Intensification ; Stream flow ; Upstream ; Downstream ; Ecosystem services ; Crop yield ; Supplemental irrigation ; Irrigation water ; Sediment ; Sustainable agriculture ; Intensification ; Ecology ; Decision support systems ; Ponds ; Watersheds ; Soils ; Assessment ; Nutrient availability ; Onions ; Food security ; Food production ; Economic aspects ; Case studies / Ethiopia / Africa South of Sahara / Lake Tana Basin
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047928)
Water harvesting systems have improved productivity in various regions in sub-Saharan Africa. Similarly, they can help retain water in landscapes, build resilience against droughts and dry spells, and thereby contribute to sustainable agricultural intensification. However, there is no strong empirical evidence that shows the effects of intensification of water harvesting on upstream–downstream social–ecological systems at a landscape scale. In this paper we develop a decision support system (DSS) for locating and sizing water harvesting ponds in a hydrological model, which enables assessments of water harvesting intensification on upstream–downstream ecosystem services in meso-scale watersheds. The DSS was used with the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) for a case-study area located in the Lake Tana basin, Ethiopia. We found that supplementary irrigation in combination with nutrient application increased simulated teff (Eragrostis tef, staple crop in Ethiopia) production up to three times, compared to the current practice. Moreover, after supplemental irrigation of teff, the excess water was used for dry season onion production of 7.66 t/ha (median). Water harvesting, therefore, can play an important role in increasing local- to regional-scale food security through increased and more stable food production and generation of extra income from the sale of cash crops. The annual total irrigation water consumption was ~ 4%–30% of the annual water yield from the entire watershed. In general, water harvesting resulted in a reduction in peak flows and an increase in low flows. Water harvesting substantially reduced sediment yield leaving the watershed. The beneficiaries of water harvesting ponds may benefit from increases in agricultural production. The downstream social–ecological systems may benefit from reduced food prices, reduced flooding damages, and reduced sediment influxes, as well as enhancements in low flows and water quality. The benefits of water harvesting warrant economic feasibility studies and detailed analyses of its ecological impacts.
15 Clarke, N.; Bizimana, J.-C.; Dile, Y.; Worqlul, A.; Osorio, J.; Herbst, B.; Richardson, J. W.; Srinivasan, R.; Gerik, T. J.; Williams, J.; Jones, C. A.; Jeong, J. 2017. Evaluation of new farming technologies in Ethiopia using the Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS). Agricultural Water Management, 180(Part B):267-279. (Special issue: Agricultural Water and Nonpoint Source Pollution Management at a Watershed Scale Part II Overseen by: Dr. Brent Clothier). [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2016.07.023]
Farming systems ; Decision support systems ; Technological changes ; Evaluation ; Water management ; Small scale systems ; Models ; Nutrition ; Energy consumption ; Cropping systems ; Farm income ; Socioeconomic environment ; Watersheds ; Environmental sustainability ; Villages / Ethiopia / Amhara Region / Fogera Woreda / Weg-Arba Amba Kebele / Shena Kebele / Lake Tana
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047957)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378377416302694/pdfft?md5=7548f347c9ff8e0db60dca03902b7abe&pid=1-s2.0-S0378377416302694-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H047957.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H047957.pdf
(3.19 MB) (3.19 MB)
This study investigates multi-dimensional impacts of adopting new technology in agriculture at the farm/village and watershed scale in sub-Saharan Africa using the Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS). Application of IDSS as an integrated modeling tool helps solve complex issues in agricultural systems by simultaneously assessing production, environmental, economic, and nutritional consequences of adopting agricultural technologies for sustainable increases in food production and use of scarce natural resources. The IDSS approach was applied to the Amhara region of Ethiopia, where the scarcity of resources and agro-environmental consequences are critical to agricultural productivity of small farm, to analyze the impacts of alternative agricultural technology interventions. Results show significant improvements in family income and nutrition, achieved through the adoption of irrigation technologies, proper use of fertilizer, and improved seed varieties while preserving environmental indicators in terms of soil erosion and sediment loadings. These pilot studies demonstrate the usefulness of the IDSS approach as a tool that can be used to predict and evaluate the economic and environmental consequences of adopting new agricultural technologies that aim to improve the livelihoods of subsistence farmers.
16 Worqlul, A. W.; Jeong, J.; Dile, Y. T.; Osorio, J.; Schmitter, Petra; Gerik, T.; Srinivasan, R.; Clark, N. 2017. Assessing potential land suitable for surface irrigation using groundwater in Ethiopia. Applied Geography, 85:1-13. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2017.05.010]
Surface irrigation ; Groundwater recharge ; Groundwater irrigation ; Water storage ; Geographical information systems ; Land suitability ; Land use ; Irrigated land ; Agroindustry ; Soil texture ; Slopes ; Rain ; Evapotranspiration ; Water requirements ; Water resources ; Water availability ; River basins ; Population density ; Mapping ; Farmer-led irrigation ; Crops / Ethiopia
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048151)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0143622816306269/pdfft?md5=d81ce4d77a5a37854e1918796d7b3995&pid=1-s2.0-S0143622816306269-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H048151.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H048151.pdf
(5.35 MB)
Although Ethiopia has abundant land for irrigation, only a fraction of its potential land is being utilized. This study evaluates suitability of lands for irrigation using groundwater in Ethiopia using GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) techniques in order to enhance the country's agricultural industry. Key factors that significantly affect irrigation suitability evaluated in this study include physical land features (land use, soil, and slope), climate (rainfall and evapotranspiration), and market access (proximity to roads and access to market). These factors were weighted using a pair-wise comparison matrix, then reclassified and overlaid to identify suitable areas for groundwater irrigation using a 1-km grid. Groundwater data from the British Geological Survey were used to estimate the groundwater potential, which indicates the corresponding irrigation potential for major crops. Results indicated that more than 6 million ha of land are suitable for irrigation in Ethiopia. A large portion of the irrigable land is located in the Abbay, Rift Valley, Omo Ghibe, and Awash River basins. These basins have access to shallow groundwater (i.e., depth of groundwater less than 20 m from the surface) making it easier to extract. The comparison between available groundwater and total crop water requirements indicate that groundwater alone may not be sufficient to supply all suitable land. The study estimates that only 8% of the suitable land can be irrigated with the available shallow groundwater. However, groundwater is a viable option for supplementing surface water resources for irrigation in several basins in the country.
17 Anand, J.; Gosain, A. K.; Khosa, R.; Srinivasan, R.. 2018. Regional scale hydrologic modeling for prediction of water balance, analysis of trends in streamflow and variations in streamflow: the case study of the Ganga River Basin. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 16:32-53. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2018.02.007]
Water resources ; Surface water ; Water balance ; Forecasting ; Stream flow ; Runoff ; Hydrology ; Models ; Calibration ; Performance evaluation ; Precipitation ; Rain ; Meltwater ; Spatial distribution ; Case studies / India / Ganga River Basin
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048756)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214581817303245/pdfft?md5=5ce82364c6e77a812a117cceed062f19&pid=1-s2.0-S2214581817303245-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H048756.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H048756.pdf
(3.92 MB) (3.92 MB)
Study region: Ganga River basin.
Study focus: The availability of freshwater has been recognized as a global issue, and the reliable evaluation and quantification of it within the basin is necessary to bolster the sustainable management of water. For this purpose a basin-scale SWAT model of the Ganga River basin has been developed.
New hydrologic insights for the region: Model validation showed that simulated results were consistent with the observed data in reproducing the seasonal dynamics of surface water and suggest that the model is capable of reproducing the hydrological features of the basin including the snow melt. However, there are large variations in both temporal and spatial distribution of the hydrological components. Statistical methods have been used for detecting trends and critical changes in streamflow. It has been found that although the streamflow from the snow fed areas has increased, the stream flow in the lower reaches and the non-perennial tributaries have declined significantly. This decline can be attributed to both anthropogenic and exogenous changes. The study also establishes that there has been a substantial reduction in overall water resources availability with respect to Virgin. This information sets the yardstick to the restoration of the hydrological and environmental health of the basin and can lead to better management of water resources under scarcity.
Study focus: The availability of freshwater has been recognized as a global issue, and the reliable evaluation and quantification of it within the basin is necessary to bolster the sustainable management of water. For this purpose a basin-scale SWAT model of the Ganga River basin has been developed.
New hydrologic insights for the region: Model validation showed that simulated results were consistent with the observed data in reproducing the seasonal dynamics of surface water and suggest that the model is capable of reproducing the hydrological features of the basin including the snow melt. However, there are large variations in both temporal and spatial distribution of the hydrological components. Statistical methods have been used for detecting trends and critical changes in streamflow. It has been found that although the streamflow from the snow fed areas has increased, the stream flow in the lower reaches and the non-perennial tributaries have declined significantly. This decline can be attributed to both anthropogenic and exogenous changes. The study also establishes that there has been a substantial reduction in overall water resources availability with respect to Virgin. This information sets the yardstick to the restoration of the hydrological and environmental health of the basin and can lead to better management of water resources under scarcity.
18 Dile, Y. T.; Tekleab, S.; Ayana, E. K.; Gebrehiwot, S. G.; Worqlul, A. W.; Bayabil, H. K.; Yimam, Y. T.; Tilahun, S. A.; Daggupati, P.; Karlberg, L.; Srinivasan, R.. 2018. Advances in water resources research in the Upper Blue Nile Basin and the way forward: a review. Journal of Hydrology, 560:407-423. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.03.042]
Water resources ; Research ; Water conservation ; Soil conservation ; Erosion ; Climate change ; Land use ; Catchment areas ; Water balance ; Hydrology ; Models ; Economic development ; Agriculture ; Remote sensing / Ethiopia / Upper Blue Nile Basin
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048798)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169418302087/pdfft?md5=fd653f0a22b3bbc8ecfa4c346eb5cfc9&pid=1-s2.0-S0022169418302087-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H048798.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H048798.pdf
(1.32 MB) (1.32 MB)
The Upper Blue Nile basin is considered as the lifeline for ~250 million people and contributes ~50 Gm3 / year of water to the Nile River. Poor land management practices in the Ethiopian highlands have caused a significant amount of soil erosion, thereby threatening the productivity of the Ethiopian agricultural system, degrading the health of the aquatic ecosystem, and shortening the life of downstream reservoirs. The Upper Blue Nile basin, because of limited research and availability of data, has been considered as the "great unknown." In the recent past, however, more research has been published. Nonetheless, there is no state-of-the-art review that presents research achievements, gaps and future directions. Hence, this paper aims to bridge this gap by reviewing the advances in water resources research in the basin while highlighting research needs and future directions. We report that there have been several research projects that try to understand the biogeochemical processes by collecting information on runoff, groundwater recharge, sediment transport, and tracers. Different types of hydrological models have been applied. Most of the earlier research used simple conceptual and statistical approaches for trend analysis and water balance estimations, mainly using rainfall and evapotranspiration data. More recent research has been using advanced semi-physically/physically based distributed hydrological models using high-resolution temporal and spatial data for diverse applications. We identified several research gaps and provided recommendations to address them. While we have witnessed advances in water resources research in the basin, we also foresee opportunities for further advancement. Incorporating the research findings into policy and practice will significantly benefit the development and transformation agenda of the Ethiopian government.
19 Worqlul, A. W.; Dile, Y. T.; Jeong, J.; Adimassu, Zenebe; Lefore, Nicole; Gerik, T.; Srinivasan, R.; Clarke, N. 2019. Effect of climate change on land suitability for surface irrigation and irrigation potential of the shallow groundwater in Ghana. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 157: 110-125. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2018.12.040]
Climate change ; Land suitability ; Land use ; Irrigation methods ; Surface irrigation ; Groundwater management ; Water resources ; Surface water ; GIS ; Slope ; Soils ; Socioeconomic environment ; Population density ; Rainfall ; Temperature ; Evapotranspiration / Ghana
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049052)
https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0168169918311426?token=D47C9342836EF05EF9C7A103181929ACB8DDE1F80AD6AF06C2A5B98E687E907761A212B911EFC4AC23D7985048ACB910
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049052.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049052.pdf
(6.84 MB)
Estimating the potential land resources suitable for irrigation and evaluating the possible impact of climate change on land suitability is essential for planning a sustainable agricultural system. This study applied a GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) technique to evaluate the suitability of land for irrigation in Ghana for a baseline period (1990 to 2010) and future time horizons 2050s (2041 to 2060) and 2070s (2061 to 2080). Key factors considered to evaluate the suitability of the land for irrigation include biophysical features (such as climate, land use, soil, and slope) and socioeconomic factors (such as proximity to roads and population density). These factors were weighted using a pairwise comparison matrix then reclassified and overlaid on a 30 m grid to estimate the irrigation potential of the country. Groundwater data from the British Geological Survey (BGS) were superimposed onto the land suitability map layer to evaluate the irrigation potential and the accessibility of shallow groundwater with simple water lifting technologies. Downscaled and bias-corrected future climate data from HadGEM2-ES under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 emission scenario were used to represent the future climate horizon. Due to climate change, on average, rainfall will increase by 15 mm and 20 mm from the baseline period in the 2050s and 2070s, respectively. The average temperature shows a consistent increase in the majority of Ghana and a higher rate of increase is expected in the 2070s. Consequently, the rising temperature will increase the potential evapotranspiration by 6.0% and 7.6% in the 2050s and 2070s, respectively. The suitability analysis indicates that approximately 9% of the country is suitable for surface irrigation under the baseline period. A large portion of the potential land is located in the southwestern part of the country. The potential suitable land has an average groundwater access of 12 m from the surface with an average borehole potential yield of 2.5 L/second, which makes it favorable for utilization of simple water lifting technologies. Due to climate change, 9.5% of the suitable land will become unfavorable for irrigation in 2050s, and it is expected to reach 17% in 2070s.
20 Worqlul, A. W.; Dile, Y. T.; Schmitter, Petra; Jeong, J.; Meki, M. N.; Gerik, T. J.; Srinivasan, R.; Lefore, Nicole; Clarke, N. 2019. Water resource assessment, gaps, and constraints of vegetable production in Robit and Dangishta watersheds, Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Agricultural Water Management, 226:105767. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2019.105767]
Water resources ; Assessment ; Agricultural production ; Vegetables ; Crop yield ; Tomatoes ; Onions ; Irrigation water ; Rain ; Groundwater recharge ; Watersheds ; Water use efficiency ; Fertilizer application ; Farmers ; Farmer-led irrigation ; Models / Ethiopia / Upper Blue Nile Basin / Robit Watershed / Dangishta Watershed
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049376)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378377418314021/pdfft?md5=769bfc34b80853a9a6b06c0b86106dda&pid=1-s2.0-S0378377418314021-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049376.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049376.pdf
(2.00 MB) (2.00 MB)
The vast majority of farmers in sub-Saharan Africa depend on rainfed agriculture for food production and livelihood. Various factors including but not limited to rainfall variability, land degradation, and low soil fertility constrain agricultural productivity in the region. The objectives of this study were to 1) estimate the water resources potential to sustain small-scale irrigation (SSI) in Ethiopia during the dry season so as to expand food supply by growing vegetables, and 2) understand the gaps and constraints of vegetable production. The case studies were conducted in the Robit and Dangishta watersheds of the Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia. To document farmers’ cropping practices, field-level data were collected from 36 households who had been cultivating tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and onion (Allium cepa L.) during the dry season (November – April). Two components of the Integrated Decision Support System (IDSS) - the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and Agricultural Policy Environmental eXtender (APEX) – were respectively used to assess impacts of SSI at the watershed and field-scale levels. Results suggest that there is a substantial amount of surface runoff and shallow groundwater recharge at the watershed scale. The field-scale analysis in the Robit watershed indicated that optimal tomato yield could be obtained with 500 mm of water and 200 to 250 kg/ha of urea applied with 50 kg/ ha of diammonium phosphate (DAP). In Dangishta, optimum onion yield can be obtained with 400 mm of water and 120 to 180 kg/ha of urea applied with 50 kg/ha of DAP. The field-scale simulation indicated that the average shallow groundwater recharge (after accounting for other groundwater users such as household and livestock use) was not sufficient to meet tomato and onion water demand in the dry season (October to April). The fieldscale analysis also indicated that soil evaporation attributed a significant proportion of evapotranspiration (60% for onion and 40% for tomato). Use of mulching or other soil and water conservation interventions could optimize irrigation water for vegetable production by reducing soil evaporation and thereby increasing water availability in the crop root zone.
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