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1 Merrey, D. J. 1983. Irrigation, poverty and social change in a village of Pakistani Punjab: an historical and cultural ecological analysis. Thesis, vol. I: part I-IV, vol. II: part V-VI. Dissertation in anthropology presented to the University of Pennsylvania for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. v.1:pp.1-469; v2: pp.470-861.
Irrigation systems ; History ; Irrigation canals ; Villages ; Social structure ; Settlement ; Land ownership ; Tenancy ; Farm size ; Poverty / Pakistan / Punjab / Gujarat / Gondalpur village / Chaj Doab / Lower Jehlum Canal
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: D 631.7.3 G730 MER Record No: H000884)
(0.48 MB)
The dissertation examines the roots of poverty in rural Pakistan by attempting to explain why there has been little "development" in a village that was a direct "beneficiary" of a large development project, the irrigation system of Punjab. Utilizing both detailed land records and data gathered through standard anthropological techniques, the dissertation analyzes how and why the community changed between 1857 and 1977. In 1857, "Gondalpur" had 67 inhabitants cultivating 64 acres of land, and dependent mainly on cattle for subsistence. By 1901 Gondalpur had nearly 570 inhabitants cultivating over 300 acres and pursuing a mixed cultivation and cattle-raising strategy. A clear division developed between land owners and non-owners, accompanied by a system of exchanges between cultivators and occupational specialists. Over half the land had been acquired by absentee landlords. In 1904, when canal irrigation was introduced, there was a rapid expansion of cultivation, especially cash cropping; an increase in tenancy; and kinship groups called biraderi emerged as important components of the social structure. By 1977 the population reached 1,450, and most land is irrigated and double-cropped. There has been a drastic decline in size of ownership and farm units. After the initial expansion of cultivation, per capita agricultural productivity has declined. Most villagers are quite poor. The community is fragmented by conflict and unable to resist interference from outsiders. The dissertation tries to explain these changes from an historical and cultural ecological perspective. The major factors identified are the irrigation system's design and organization; certain policies of the British government; and the large "fund of rent" siphoned from the community through taxes, rent, and illegal extractions by officials. These and other factors interacted with the community patterns of land tenure and organization and production which had developed before canal irrigation. The result is low productivity, large inequalities in land holding, no investment in improved technologies, and an inability to cooperate on self-help projects. The dissertation concludes by discussing the implications of the findings for cultural ecological theory and the future development of the Indus Basin.
2 Hussain, I.; Sakthivadivel, R.; Amarasinghe, U.; Mudasser, M.; Molden, D. 2003. Land and water productivity of wheat in the western Indo-Gangetic Plains of India and Pakistan: a comparative analysis. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). vi, 50p. (IWMI Research Report 065) [doi: https://doi.org/10.3910/2009.071]
Wheat ; Crop yield ; Productivity ; Climate ; Irrigation canals ; Watercourses ; Water distribution ; Water allocation ; Policy / India / Pakistan / Gangetic Plains / Kaithal Irrigation Circle / Bhakra Canal / Chaj Sub-Basin / Lower Jehlum Canal
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: IWMI 631.7.2 G635 HUS Record No: H031469)
( 1.86MB)
The purpose of this study is to analyze variations in wheat yields and to assess the range of factors affecting wheat yields and profitability of wheat production in the selected irrigation systems in India and Pakistan. The study attempts to identify constraints and opportunities for closing the existing yield gaps. It is hypothesized that substantial gains in aggregate yields can be obtained by improved water management practices at the farm and irrigation-system levels.
3 Muddasser, Muhammad; Jehangir, Waqar A.; Hussain, Intizar; Ashfaq, Muhammad. 2004. Poverty across various canal commands in irrigated Punjab, Pakistan. In Jehangir, Waqar A.; Hussain, Intizar (Eds.). Poverty reduction through improved agricultural water management. Proceedings of the Workshop on Pro-poor Intervention Strategies in Irrigated Agriculture in Asia, Islamabad, Pakistan, 23-24 April 2003. Lahore, Pakistan: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). pp.71-87.
Poverty ; Indicators ; Irrigation canals ; Irrigation systems ; Households / Pakistan / Upper Chaj Doab / Lower Chaj Doab / Rechna Doab / Upper Jehlum Canal / Lower Jehlum Canal
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: IWMI 631.7.3 G730 JEH Record No: H043759)
Agricultural income occupies significant share of rural households’ income. Only ample and reliable supplies of surface irrigation water can guarantee its improvement. As poverty is inversely correlated with improvement in incomes, provided other factors remain the same, the policy makers can use irrigation as a tool in poverty reduction programs. The inequity in surface water distribution not only affects the rural households across different irrigations but also influences the distribution of income and poverty situation in different reaches of each irrigation system. Since long, it is asserted that households in the tail reach areas have relatively poor access to irrigation water as compared to those situated in the head and middle reach areas. It is evident that more distance from irrigation source brings more households in the poverty trap are located at the tail reach area. Here, the intensity of poverty would be higher than in the head and middle reach areas. This paper tests this hypothesis with results showing that poverty increases in the tail reach areas as compared to head and middle reach areas. This calls for the need to address current hurdles exercising equity and reliability in irrigation supplies in order to provide this vital input for increasing agricultural productivity of the tail end farm households.
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