Your search found 14 records
1 Fraley, R. T. 2010. A system approach to water productivity. In University of Nebraska, Lincoln Office of Research and Economic Development. Proceedings of the 2010 Water for Food Conference, Lincoln, Nebraska, 2-5 May 2010. Lincoln, NE, USA: University of Nebraska. pp.56-59.
Water productivity ; Agronomic practices ; Plant breeding ; Agriculture ; Technology ; Biotechnology ; Maize
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: 631.7 G000 UNI Record No: H043816)
http://waterforfood.nebraska.edu/docs/wff2010_fullversion.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H043816.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H043816.pdf
(0.35 MB) (14.87MB)
2 Namara, Regassa E.; Awuni, J. A.; Barry, Boubacar; Giordano, Mark; Hope, Lesley; Owusu, Eric S.; Forkuor, Gerald. 2011. Smallholder shallow groundwater irrigation development in the upper east region of Ghana. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 35p. (IWMI Research Report 143) [doi: https://doi.org/10.5337/2011.214]
Groundwater irrigation ; Wells ; Agronomic practices ; Smallholders ; Economic aspects ; Social aspects ; Irrigated land ; Investment ; Water management ; Crop management ; Food security ; Poverty ; Households / Ghana
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: IWMI Record No: H044687)
(894.11KB)
In sub-Saharan Africa, there is paucity of information on the potential of groundwater resources. The limited available information paints a pessimistic view about groundwater resources. Due to its perceived inadequate availability, groundwater associated with domestic use and the potential for using it for agriculture are not well reflected in the national irrigation polices. Contrary to official pessimism, farmers do use groundwater for agriculture in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa including Ghana. This paper analyzes the current extent of use, economics, socioeconomic impacts, and constraints and opportunities of shallow groundwater irrigation based on the experiences of smallholders in the three micro-watersheds of the White Volta Basin in the Upper East Region of Ghana.
3 Getnet, Kindie; MacAlister, Charlotte. 2012. Integrated innovations and recommendation domains: paradigm for developing, scaling-out, and targeting rainwater management innovations. Ecological Economics, 76:34-41. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.02.003]
Rain water management ; Water harvesting ; Rainfed farming ; Ecological factors ; Agronomic practices ; Technology ; Indicators ; Economic aspects ; Corporate culture
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H044800)
(0.39 MB)
The technical, economic, and ecological aspects of rainwater management are interlinked and spatially bounded. Developing, scaling-out, and targeting rainwater management innovations as adaptive strategies to upgrade rainfed agriculture are therefore preferably best approached through integrated innovations and recommendation domains as a paradigm. At the level of scenario development, the integrated innovations paradigm helps to understand and address integrity between technical, economic, and ecological issues that affect technology adoption, impact, and sustained use. At the level of scaling-out and targeting, recommendation domains provide the spatial dimension that embraces the economic, institutional, biophysical, and agro-ecological conditions in which integrated rainwater management innovations can be accommodated to address heterogeneity. This paper reviews Ethiopia's experience in rainwater management (adoption, performance, and impact) to get insights about the proposed paradigm and the factors entering the aradigm.The findings suggest that integrated innovations and the conditions of success embraced in a recommendation domain provide the necessary and sufficient conditions for a successful rainwater management intervention at a landscape level.
4 Schmitter, Petra; Haileslassie, Amare; Nakawuka, Prossie; Gebregziabher, Gebrehaweria; Tesema, M.; Tegegne, D.; Abdela, M.; Yilak, D. L.; Tilahun, S.; Ayana, M.; Langan, Simon. 2016. The importance of Ethiopian soils in irrigation and overall watershed management [Abstract only] Paper presented at the Strategic Forum on Sustainable development in Africa: Opportunities and Pitfalls for Universities and NGO’s, Heverlee, Belgium, 15 January 2016. 1p.
Watershed management ; Irrigation methods ; Surface irrigation ; Groundwater irrigation ; Irrigation water ; Water quality ; Water management ; Soil sampling ; Soil moisture ; Agronomic practices ; Crop production ; Tillage / Ethiopia
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047383)
(0.01 MB)
Irrigation has a large potential to increase agricultural output and yield per unit area. However, the long term sustainability increased production, together with degradation of the soils (and associated water bodies) in irrigated areas may be irreparably damaged by inappropriate watering schedules. In Ethiopia, surface and groundwater irrigation has been promoted intensively throughout the country. While many projects focus on individual or scheme level water access, very little is known about the sustainability of irrigation in Ethiopia. Aside, from water quantity the quality of irrigation water has a significant impact on soil stability and its chemical properties. In the Ziway, a very important irrigation area in Oromia, soils are increasingly becoming sodic due to the large irrigation quantities and the poor water quality. The International Water Management Institute focusses through various research for development projects on improving irrigation water management, increasing groundwater recharge and assessing the environmental impact of irrigation for various soils throughout the Amhara, Oromia and SNNPR region. Irrigation scheduling tools have been introduced at individual and scheme based small holder farms for the irrigation of high value horticultural and fodder crops to improve water and crop productivity and reduce nutrient leaching. Simultaneously groundwater recharge experiments were carried out using deep tillage and soil & water conservation practices in the rainy season. In these studies, soils are sampled, irrigation quantified, soil moisture measured and standard agronomic practices monitored. Additionally, socio-economic data are being collected on household composition, land holding, labor involved in as well as income generated by the various technologies. Preliminary results showed that crop productivity was not effect while reducing water between 18-35% as function of the prevailing soil types. For the groundwater recharge studies lowest runoff values and highest crop productivity values were observed in the deep tillage plots compared to zero and normal tillage. The socio-economic as well as biophysical data are used in field as well as watershed models to assess the environmental and economic impact of various irrigation scenarios throughout the agro-ecological zones.
5 McCartney, Matthew; Johnston, Robyn; Lacombe, Guillaume. 2016. Building climate resilience through smart water and irrigation management systems. In Nagothu U.S. (Ed). Climate change and agricultural development: Improving resilience through climate smart agriculture, agroecology and conservation. Oxon, UK: Routledge. pp.41-65.
Water management ; Irrigation management ; Irrigation systems ; Groundwater irrigation ; Climate change ; Food security ; Agronomic practices ; Agricultural production ; Rainfed farming ; Irrigated farming ; Rice ; Greenhouse gases ; Emission reduction ; Socioeconomic development ; Living standards ; Rainwater ; Water harvesting ; Ecosystems / southeast Asia
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047645)
6 Kadyampakeni, D. M.; Mloza-Banda, H. R.; Singa, D. D.; Mangisoni, J. H.; Ferguson, A.; Snapp, S. 2013. Agronomic and socio-economic analysis of water management techniques for dry season cultivation of common bean in Malawi. Editorial. Irrigation Science, 31(4):537-544. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-012-0333-5]
Water management ; Socioeconomic environment ; Agronomic practices ; Water use efficiency ; Dry season ; Dry farming ; Kidney beans ; Crop yield ; Irrigation methods ; Small scale systems ; Performance evaluation ; Cost benefit analysis ; Farmers ; Labor / Malawi / Zomba
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047691)
(0.30 MB)
A study was carried out in Malawi to compare agronomic and socio-economic aspects of different water management practices for two advanced bean lines. Four irrigation technologies and one control were studied in Chingale Area Development Program in Zomba District in southern Malawi. The technologies encompassed motorized pumps (MP), treadle pumps (TP), water cans, gravity-fed surface irrigation (GR) and a non-irrigated practice that used residual moisture. The study found that technologies that used \2 labour hours m-3 were appropriate for such small-scale irrigation systems. The aggregated bean production labour cost and labourday thresholds were $893 ha-1 and 2,978 LD ha-1 , respectively. An irrigation supply in the range of 7,000–10,000 m3 ha-1 for the TP, MP and GR would be adequate. Assuming 20 irrigations season-1 , 400–600 m3 irrigation-1 would be adequate, supplying 40–60 mm every 5–7 days. The study found that poor small-scale farmers in Malawi, particularly those using MPs, need fuel subsidies in order to offset operational costs. Basing on the findings in the study, we recommend further research on several bean lines in different agro-ecologies of Malawi using technologies that showed high yields, low labour efficiency and high water use productivity.
7 Negussie, A.; Achten, W. M. J.; Norgrove, L.; Mekuria, Wolde; Hadgu, K. M.; De Both, G.; Leroy, B.; Hermy, M.; Muys, B. 2016. Initial effects of fertilization and canopy management on flowering and seed and oil yields of Jatropha curcas L. in Malawi. BioEnergy Research, 9:1231-1240. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-016-9767-6]
Fertilizer application ; Fertilization ; Nitrogen fertilizers ; Inorganic fertilizers ; Canopy ; Flowering ; Seed production ; Oilseeds ; Jatropha curcas ; Biofuels ; Bioenergy ; Agronomy ; Agronomic practices ; Pruning implements ; Planting ; Spacing ; Soil sampling / Malawi
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047879)
Appropriate canopy management, including planting density and pruning, and application of fertilizer may increase flowering success and seed and oil yields of Jatropha curcasL.Twofieldexperimentswereperformedfrom2009to 2011 in Balaka, Malawi, to assess the effect of planting density and pruning regime and single fertilizer application (N, P, and K) on male and female flower number and seed and oil yields of J. curcas. Planting density influenced flower sex ratio and female flower number. Branch pruning treatments did not influence the flower sex ratio but reduced seed and final oil yield by 55 % in the following year. It is claimed that J.curcas can be grown on soils with low nutrient content, but this study revealed that yield was low for non-fertilized trees. WeobservedhigherseedandoilyieldsathigherNapplication rates(upto203±42%seedand204±45%oilyieldincrease) compared with the non-fertilized control. The study suggests thatcurrentlyusedheavypruningpracticeisnotrecommended for J.curcas cultivation, although it needs further longer term investigation. Applying nitrogen fertilizer is effective in increasing yield.
8 Aslam, Muhammad. 2016. Agricultural productivity current scenario, constraints and future prospects in Pakistan. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 32(4):289-303. [doi: https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2016.32.4.289.303]
Agricultural production ; Productivity ; Seed production ; Crop yield ; Cropping systems ; Wheat ; Cotton ; Rice ; Maize ; Sugarcane ; Agricultural research ; Agronomic practices ; Irrigation management ; Environmental effects ; Technology assessment ; Corporate culture ; Socioeconomic environment ; Drainage systems / Pakistan
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047873)
http://smithandfranklin.com/base/downloads.php?jid=14&aid=256&acid=8&path=pdf&file=1476377779SJA_32_4_289-303.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H047873.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H047873.pdf
(218 KB)
This review paper intends to portray current scenario of agricultural productivity through yields and gaps of five major crops; wheat, cotton, rice, maize and sugarcane. The review discusses major constraints, identifies future prospects and makes policy recommendations for enhanced agricultural productivity in Pakistan. The review revealed that in Pakistan, on average current yield of wheat, cotton, rice, maize and sugarcane is 2.26, 1.87, 2.88, 1.77 and 48.06 tons per hectare, respectively against 6.80, 4.30, 5.20, 9.20 and 300 tons per hectare potential yield of wheat, cotton, rice, maize and sugarcane, respectively, obtained through research. This reflects a yield gap of 67, 57, 45, 81 and 84 % between average and potential yield of wheat, cotton, rice, maize and sugarcane, respectively. The review also informed that current Pakistan’s average yield of wheat, cotton, rice, maize and sugarcane is 70, 53, 61, 82 and 60%, respectively lower than the average yields obtained internationally. Major constraints include agronomic, irrigation management, environmental, technological, institutional and socio-economic constraints. Future prospects include upscaling of modern technology, enhanced seed production, improved inputs availability and use, improved irrigation, improved agriculture-education-training-research- extension-nexus, reclamation of salinized lands, improved agricultural credit and support price policies. Recommendations include improving agricultural research and extension systems, accelerating diffusion and adoption of latest agriculture technologies and inputs, enhancing good quality seed production, improving irrigation water management and improving reclamation and drainage.
9 Kadyampakeni, Davie M.; Mul, Marloes L.; Obuobie, E.; Appoh, Richard; Owusu, Afua; Ghansah, Benjamin; Boakye-Acheampong, Enoch; Barron, Jennie. 2017. Agro-climatic and hydrological characterization of selected watersheds in northern Ghana. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). 40p. (IWMI Working Paper 173) [doi: https://doi.org/10.5337/2017.209]
Watersheds ; Agricultural production ; Intensification ; Agroclimatology ; Hydrology ; Analytical method ; Agronomic practices ; Water balance ; Water quality ; Water management ; Water deficit ; Climatic factors ; pH ; Electrical conductivity ; Soil texture ; Soil quality ; Soil sampling ; Soil fertility ; Land cover mapping ; Land use ; Rain ; Temperature ; Evapotranspiration ; Farmers ; Wet season ; Dry season ; Reservoir storage ; Wells ; Rivers ; Irrigation schemes ; Catchment areas ; Cropping systems ; Crop production ; Meteorological stations ; Cation exchange capacity / Ghana
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: IWMI Record No: H048209)
(1 MB)
This paper provides the climatic and biophysical context of three watersheds in northern Ghana. The objective of the study is to describe the agro-climatic and hydrological features of the watersheds from a landscape perspective. The analyses show that water surplus occurs about 3 months in a year, with only one month providing a significant surplus. Small-scale irrigation is, therefore, carried out in the dry months between November and June. The quality of water used for irrigation from wells, reservoirs and rivers is good for irrigation and domestic purposes. The soil chemical parameters across the study sites show that the soils are suitable for irrigation and crop system intensification, although it requires substantial fertilizer inputs. The paper concludes that there are opportunities from both a soil quality and water availability perspective to enhance sustainable intensification through small- and medium-scale irrigation in the selected watersheds.
10 Keraita, B.; Mateo-Sagasta, Javier; Qadir, M.; Medlicott, K.; Drechsel, Pay; Lamizana, B. 2017. Mitigacion de riesgos en los sistemas de uso agricola de aguas residuales y ejemplos en America Latina y el Caribe. In Spanish. [Risk mitigation in wastewater irrigation systems and examples in Latin America and the Caribbean]. In Mateo-Sagasta, Javier (Ed.). Reutilizacion de aguas para agricultura en America Latina y el Caribe: estado, principios y necesidades. Santiago, Chile: FAO. pp.29-42.
Wastewater irrigation ; Irrigation systems ; Water reuse ; Risk reduction ; Public health ; Health hazards ; Indicator organisms ; Environmental Impact Assessment ; Risk assessment ; Wastewater treatment ; Appropriate technology ; Agricultural production ; On-farm research ; Agronomic practices ; Urban wastes / Latin America / Caribbean / Peru
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048425)
(0.90 MB) (8.55 MB)
11 Erkossa, Teklu; Williams, Timothy O.; Laekemariam, F. 2018. Integrated soil, water and agronomic management effects on crop productivity and selected soil properties in Western Ethiopia. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 6(4): 305-316. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2018.06.001]
Soil management ; Soil properties ; Soil moisture ; Soil sampling ; Water management ; Agronomic practices ; Crop production ; Productivity ; Land degradation ; Intercropping ; Crop yield ; Fertilizers ; Farming systems ; Farmers ; Soil chemical properties / Ethiopia / Oromia Region / Jeldu / Diga
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048870)
https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/52FCA3E143E488624EE6ACB459F4566E1812A259009A2E4B5EA574F5AEAC285CD0B1DAF4D7C9C1143C0A1B82924EE6FC
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H048870.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H048870.pdf
Land degradation is a major challenge limiting crop production in Ethiopia. Integrated soil and water conservation is widely applied as a means to reverse the trend and increase productivity. This study investigated the effects of such integrated approaches at two sites, Jeldu and Diga, in Western Ethiopia. A split plot design with physical soil and water conservation in the main plots and agronomic practices in the sub plots was employed. Maize (Zea mays L.) followed by groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) at Diga, and wheat (Triticum aestivum) followed by faba bean (Vicia faba L.) were the test crops. Surface soils were sampled before sowing and after the crop harvest, and analyzed for selected parameters. Soil moisture content during the growing period was also monitored. The use of soil bund increased soil moisture content, and significantly (P < 0.05) increased days to flowering and maturity, kernel weight and harvest index, grain yield of the test crops, with the exception of maize. The improved agronomic practices (intercropping, fertilization and row planting) significantly (P < 0.05) increased grain yield of all the test crops. The effect of the treatments on soil parameters may require longer time to be evident. Although the increase in crop yield due to soil bund and the improved agronomic practices is eminent, economic analysis is necessary before recommending the widespread use of the improved options.
12 Janz, B.; Weller, S.; Kraus, D.; Racela, H. S.; Wassmann, R.; Butterbach-Bahl, K.; Kiese, R. 2019. Greenhouse gas footprint of diversifying rice cropping systems: impacts of water regime and organic amendments. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 270-271:41-54. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.10.011]
Greenhouse gas emissions ; Cropping systems ; Irrigation water ; Organic amendments ; Rice straw ; Agronomic practices ; Crop rotation ; Diversification ; Mung beans ; Maize ; Catch crops ; Methane emission ; Nitrous oxide ; Climatic change ; Green manures ; Residues / Philippines
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049124)
(3.06 MB)
Increasing water scarcity and Asia’s rapid economic and social development, specifically the growing demand for animal products and biofuels, is forcing farmers to transform their traditional lowland double-rice cropping systems [R-R] to mixed lowland-upland systems where upland crops such as aerobic rice [R-A] or maize [R-M] are grown instead of paddy rice during the dry period. Such changes have implications on the C and N cycling in the soil-plant system, including major shifts in soil greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from CH4 to N2O once paddies are used for upland cropping. Moreover, soil organic carbon stocks are decreasing, thereby jeopardizing soil fertility. In this study, we investigated if straw residue incorporation and/or catch crop cultivation impairs the greenhouse gas footprint of diversifying rice cropping systems and thus, presents an alternative to open-field straw burning and intensive mineral N fertilization. For this, we calculate annual global warming potentials (GWP) and yield-scaled GWPs of three different rice systems (R-R: rice-rice, R-A: rice- aerobic rice, R-M: rice maize) without (control) or with additions of straw (+6 Mg ha-1 [S]) or + straw + mungbean as catch crop ([M + S]) on the basis of high-temporal-resolution GHG emissions (CH4 and N2O), and measurements of yield parameters. The field trial was carried out at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines, covering two full years. Although dry season N2O emissions increased twice- to threefold in the diversified systems (R-A, R-M), the strong reduction of CH4 emissions during this period resulted in significantly lower annual yield-scaled GWP as compared to the traditional R-R system. The same pattern was observed after application and incorporation of organic material (straw and mungbean), but led to higher substrate availability for methanogens during the following season. Therefore, the GWP was 9–39% higher in treatments including straw incorporation as compared to a control treatment without organic substrate amendments. Additional incorporation of mungbeans further increased GWPs, whereby the increment was highest in R-R rotation (88%) and lowest in R-M rotation (55%), with annual GHG emissions of 11.8 and 5.6 Mg CO2-eq ha-1, respectively. Our study shows that the yield-scaled GWP, as well as irrigation water demand, is lowest for rice-maize (R-M) cropping systems, followed by R-A and R-R systems. This ranking persists even with the incorporation of crop residues, a requirement for farmers as the ban of open-field burning is increasingly enforced. Our work also calls for a refinement of IPCC emission factors for lowland-upland rotations and the inclusion of the land-preparation period within the GHG balance of rice cropping systems.
13 Singh, R.; Kumari, T.; Verma, P.; Singh, B. P.; Raghubanshi, A. S. 2022. Compatible package-based agriculture systems: an urgent need for agro-ecological balance and climate change adaptation. Soil Ecology Letters, 4(3):187-212. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42832-021-0087-1]
Farming systems ; Agroecology ; Climate change adaptation ; Agricultural policies ; Conservation agriculture ; Sustainable agriculture ; Agronomic practices ; Organic agriculture ; Cropping systems ; Rice ; Intensification ; Crop yield ; Soil properties ; Soil fertility ; Greenhouse gas emissions ; Biochar ; Bibliometric analysis
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H051074)
(1.85 MB)
Besides contributing majorly in the growth of a country, agriculture is one of the severely affected sectors at present. Several modifications and adaptations are being made in agricultural practices to cope-up with the declining soil fertility and changing climate scenarios across the world. However, the development and adoption of a single agricultural practice may not help in the holistic mitigation of the impacts of climate change and may result in economic vulnerability to farmers. Therefore, it is high time to develop and recommend a group of agricultural practices i.e., package-based agriculture system having some compatibility for one another in the long term. In this article, a viewpoint has been given on some emergent agronomic practices adopted in the tropical agro-ecosystems which have potential to be developed as compatible agricultural package in combination. Moreover, we also emphasized on exploring some key indicators/environmental factors to assess the compatibility of different agronomic practices. For identifying the research transition from single to combined agricultural practices, a bibliometric analysis was performed by using conservation agriculture (CA), the system of rice intensification (SRI), organic agriculture and soil (biochar) amendment as the major agronomic practices being used for improving agro-ecological services such as improving nutrient cycling, soil fertility and crop productivity as well as climate change mitigation. The results revealed that scientific communities are now paying attention to exploring the role of combined agricultural practices for agro-ecological balance and climate change adaptation. Moreover, the limitations of the adoption of agronomic packages under different agro-climatic zones have also been highlighted. The recommendations of the study would further help the environmental decision-makers to develop potential measures for climate change mitigation without compromising the agro-ecological balance.
14 Wu, L.; Elshorbagy, A.; Helgason, W. 2023. Assessment of agricultural adaptations to climate change from a water-energy-food nexus perspective. Agricultural Water Management, 284:108343. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2023.108343]
Climate change ; Water productivity ; Energy consumption ; Food security ; Nexus approaches ; Sustainable development ; Agronomic practices ; Crop yield ; Wheat ; Rapeseed ; Peas ; Agricultural production ; Crop production ; Water use ; Soil water ; Drought stress ; Food production ; Water demand ; Irrigation water ; Water supply ; Water availability ; Water power ; Evapotranspiration / Canada / Manitoba / Saskatchewan
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H051919)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378377423002081/pdfft?md5=657e37956f50fdbcc1a8d5655caa586f&pid=1-s2.0-S0378377423002081-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H051919.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H051919.pdf
(7.22 MB) (7.22 MB)
Adapting agriculture to climate change without deteriorating natural resources (e.g., water and energy) is critical to sustainable development. In this paper, we first comprehensively evaluate six agricultural adaptations in response to climate change (2021–2050) through the lens of the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus in Saskatchewan, Canada, using a previously developed nexus model—WEF-Sask. The adaptations involve agronomic measures (early planting date, reducing soil evaporation, irrigation expansion), genetic improvement (cultivars with larger growing degree days (GDD) requirement), and combinations of individual adaptations. The results show that the selected adaptations compensate for crop yield losses (wheat, canola, pea), caused by climate change, to various extents. However, from a nexus perspective, there are mixed effects on water productivity (WP), total agricultural water (green and blue) use, energy consumption for irrigation, and hydropower generation. Individual adaptations such as early planting date and increased GDD requirement compensate for yield losses in both rainfed (0–60 %) and irrigated (18–100 %) conditions with extra use of green water (5–7 %), blue water (2–14 %), and energy for irrigation (2–14 %). Reducing soil water evaporation benefits the overall WEF nexus by compensating for rainfed yield losses (25–82 %) with less use of blue water and energy consumption for irrigation. The combination of the above three adaptations has the potential to sustain agricultural production in water-scarce regions. If irrigation expansion is also included, the combined adaptation almost fully offsets agricultural production losses from climate change but significantly increases blue water use (143–174 %) and energy consumption for irrigation while reducing hydropower production (3 %). This study provides an approach to comprehensively evaluating agricultural adaptation strategies, in response to climate change, and insights to inform decision-makers.
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