Your search found 16 records
1 Teng, P. S.; Kropff, M. J.; Berge, H.F.M. ten; Dent, J.B.; Lansigan, F.P.; van Laar, H.H. (Eds.) 1997. Applications of systems approaches at the farm and regional levels : Proceedings of the second International Symposium on Systems Approaches for Agricultural Development, held at IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines, 6-8 December 1995. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic in cooperation with IRRI, International Consortium for Agricultural Systems Applications. 2v. : ill. ; 24 cm. (Systems approaches for sustainable agricultural development ;\vv.5-6)
(Location: IWMI-SEA Call no: 338.1011 G000 TEN Record No: BKK-294)
2 Penning de Vries, F.W.T.; Teng, P.S.; Metselaar, K. (Eds.) 1993. Systems approaches for agricultural development : Proceedings of the International Symposium on Systems Approaches for Agricultural Development, 2-6 December 1991, Bangkok, Thailand. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. xii, 542p. : ill. ; 25 cm. (Systems approaches for sustainable agricultural development; v.2)
(Location: IWMI-SEA Call no: 338.1 G000 PEN Record No: BKK-295)
3 Hillhorst, T.; Muchena, F. 2000. Nutrient on the move: Soil fertility dynamics in African farming systems. London, UK: IIED. vi, 146p.: ill; 24 cm.
(Location: IWMI-SEA Call no: 631.8 G100 HIL Record No: BKK-06)
4 Temesgen, B. B. 2012. Rainwater harvesting for dryland agriculture in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia. PhD thesis. Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen University. 152p.
Rainwater ; Water harvesting ; Water conservation ; Arid zones ; Agricultural systems ; Dry farming ; Rainfed farming ; Water storage ; Supplemental irrigation ; Catchment areas ; Drought ; Land management ; Land use ; Land cover ; Valleys ; Socioeconomic environment ; Soil physical properties / Ethiopia / Rift Valley
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: 333.91 G136 TEM Record No: H044933)
(0.31 MB)
5 Sharma, Bharat. 2012. Rainfed agriculture in India. Water Today, May:40-41.
Rainfed farming ; Irrigated farming ; Agricultural systems ; Agricultural production ; Rain water management ; Water harvesting ; Ecosystems / India
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H044982)
(0.87 MB)
6 Pert, P. L.; Boelee, Eline; Jarvis, D. I.; Coates, D.; Bindraban, P.; Barron, J.; Tharme, R. E.; Herrero, M. 2013. Challenges to agroecosystem management. In Boelee, Eline. (Ed.). Managing water and agroecosystems for food security. Wallingford, UK: CABI. pp.42-52. (Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture Series 10)
Agroecosystems ; Food security ; Economic value ; Fisheries ; Livestock ; Land degradation ; Erosion ; Agricultural systems ; Agricultural production
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: IWMI Record No: H046122)
(186 KB)
7 Joffre, O. M.; Castine, S. A.; Phillips, M. J.; Senaratna Sellamuttu, Sonali; Chandrabalan, D.; Cohen, P. 2017. Increasing productivity and improving livelihoods in aquatic agricultural systems: a review of interventions. Food Security, 9(1):39-60. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-016-0633-3]
Aquatic environment ; Agricultural systems ; Living standards ; Productivity ; Food security ; Food demand ; Food production ; Nutrition ; Participatory approaches ; Income ; Intensification ; Floodplains ; Community involvement ; Fisheries ; Rice ; Livestock ; Horticulture ; Case studies / Bangladesh / Cambodia / Zambia
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047944)
The doubling of global food demand by 2050 is driving resurgence in interventions for agricultural intensification. Globally, 700 million people are dependent on floodplain or coastal systems. Increased productivity in these aquatic agricultural systems is important for meeting current and future food demand. Agricultural intensification in aquatic agricultural systems has contributed to increased agricultural production, yet these increases have not necessarily resulted in broader development outcomes for those most in need. Here we review studies of interventions that have sought to improve productivity in aquatic agricultural systems in Bangladesh, Cambodia and Zambia. We review evidence of development outcomes from these interventions and the particular role of participatory approaches in intervention design and deployment. There was evidence of increases in productivity in 20 of the 31 studies reviewed. Yet, productivity was only measured beyond the life of the intervention in one case, income and food security improvements were rarely quantified, and the social distribution of benefits rarely described. Participatory approaches were employed in 15 studies, and there was some evidence that development outcomes were more substantial than in cases that were less participatory. To explore the impact of participatory approaches further, we examined five empirical cases. Review and empirical cases provide preliminary evidence suggesting participatory approaches contribute to ensuring agriculture and aquaculture interventions into aquatic agricultural systems may better fit local contexts, are sustained longer, and are more able to deliver development benefits to those most in need. A worthy focus of future research would be comparison between outcomes achieved from interventions with differing levels of participation, and the social differentiation of outcomes.
8 Apgar, J. M.; Cohen, P. J.; Ratner, B. D.; de Silva, Sanjiv; Buisson, Marie-Charlotte; Longley, C.; Bastakoti, Ram C.; Mapedza, Everisto. 2017. Identifying opportunities to improve governance of aquatic agricultural systems through participatory action research. Ecology and Society, 22(1):1-13. [doi: https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-08929-220109]
Aquatic environment ; Agricultural systems ; Equity ; Participatory approaches ; Collective action ; Research ; Governance ; Authorities ; Resource management ; Floodplains ; Living standards ; Ownership ; Stakeholders ; Accountability ; Ecological factors / Zambia / Solomon Islands / Bangladesh / Cambodia
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047980)
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol22/iss1/art9/ES-2016-8929.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H047980.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H047980.pdf
(156 KB)
Challenges of governance often constitute critical obstacles to efforts to equitably improve livelihoods in social-ecological systems. Yet, just as often, these challenges go unspoken, or are viewed as fixed parts of the context, beyond the scope of influence of agricultural, development, or natural resource management initiatives. What does it take to get governance obstacles and opportunities out in the open, creating the space for constructive dialogue and collective action that can help to address them? We respond to this question by comparing experiences of participatory action research (PAR) in coastal and floodplain systems in four countries (Zambia, Solomon Islands, Bangladesh, and Cambodia) with a focus on understanding how to build more equitable governance arrangements. We found that governance improvement was often an implicit or secondary objective of initiatives that initially sought to address more technical natural resource or livelihood-related development challenges. We argue that using PAR principles of ownership, equity, shared analysis, and feedback built trust and helped to identify and act upon opportunities to address more difficult-to-shift dimensions of governance particularly in terms of stakeholder representation, distribution of authority, and accountability. Our findings suggest that the engaged and embedded approach of researcher-facilitators can help move from identifying opportunities for governance change to supporting stakeholders as they build more equitable governance arrangements.
9 Douthwaite, B.; Apgar, J. M.; Schwarz, A.-M.; Attwood, S.; Senaratna Sellamuttu, Sonali; Clayton, T. 2017. A new professionalism for agricultural research for development. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 15(3):238-252. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2017.1314754]
Agricultural research ; Research and development ; Professionalism ; Research organizations ; CGIAR ; Research programmes ; Aquatic environment ; Agricultural systems ; Participatory approaches ; Community involvement ; Partnerships ; Stakeholders ; Scientists ; Farmers ; Capacity building ; Gender equity ; Green revolution ; Case studies ; Monitoring ; Evaluation
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048130)
(1.39 MB)
There have been repeated calls for a ‘new professionalism’ for carrying out agricultural research for development since the 1990s. At the centre of these calls is a recognition that for agricultural research to support the capacities required to face global patterns of change and their implications on rural livelihoods, requires a more systemic, learning focused and reflexive practice that bridges epistemologies and methodologies. In this paper, we share learning from efforts to mainstream such an approach through a large, multi-partner CGIAR research program working in aquatic agricultural systems. We reflect on four years of implementing research in development (RinD), the program’s approach to the new professionalism. We highlight successes and challenges and describe the key characteristics that define the approach. We conclude it is possible to build a program on a broader approach that embraces multidisciplinarity and engages with stakeholders in social-ecological systems. Our experience also suggests caution is required to ensure there is the time, space and appropriate evaluation methodologies in place to appreciate outcomes different to those to which conventional agricultural research aspires.
10 Douthwaite, B.; Hoffecker, E. 2017. Towards a complexity-aware theory of change for participatory research programs working within agricultural innovation systems. Agricultural Systems, 155:88-102. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2017.04.002]
Agricultural research ; Participatory research ; Research programmes ; Agricultural innovation systems ; International organizations ; CGIAR ; Aquatic environment ; Agricultural systems ; Fisheries ; Stakeholders ; Scientists ; Farmers ; Evaluation ; Empowerment ; Case studies ; Plant fibres ; Abaca ; Models / Zambia / Philippines
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048508)
(0.83 MB)
Agricultural innovation systems (AIS) are increasingly recognized as complex adaptive systems in which interventions cannot be expected to create predictable, linear impacts. Nevertheless, the logic models and theory of change (ToC) used by standard-setting international agricultural research agencies and donors assume that agricultural research will create impact through a predictable linear adoption pathway which largely ignores the complexity dynamics of AIS, and which misses important alternate pathways through which agricultural research can improve system performance and generate sustainable development impact. Despite a growing body of literature calling for more dynamic, flexible and “complexity-aware” approaches to monitoring and evaluation, few concrete examples exist of ToC that takes complexity dynamics within AIS into account, or provide guidance on how such theories could be developed. This paper addresses this gap by presenting an example of how an empirically-grounded, complexity-aware ToC can be developed and what such a model might look like in the context of a particular type of program intervention. Two detailed case studies are presented from an agricultural research program which was explicitly seeking to work in a “complexity-aware” way within aquatic agricultural systems in Zambia and the Philippines. Through an analysis of the outcomes of these interventions, the pathways through which they began to produce impacts, and the causal factors at play, we derive a “complexity-aware” ToC to model how the cases worked. This middle-range model, as well as an overarching model that we derive from it, offer an alternate narrative of how development change can be produced in agricultural systems, one which aligns with insights from complexity science and which, we argue, more closely represents the ways in which many research for development interventions work in practice. The nested ToC offers a starting point for asking a different set of evaluation and research questions which may be more relevant to participatory research efforts working from within a complexity-aware, agricultural innovation systems perspective.
11 Ringler, C.; Choufani, J.; Chase, C.; McCartney, Matthew; Mateo-Sagasta, Javier; Mekonnen, D.; Dickens, Chris. 2018. Meeting the nutrition and water targets of the Sustainable Development Goals: achieving progress through linked interventions. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE); Washington, DC, USA: The World Bank. 24p. (WLE Research for Development (R4D) Learning Series 7) [doi: https://doi.org/10.5337/2018.221]
Research and development ; Learning ; Sustainable Development Goals ; Nutrition ; Integrated management ; Water resources ; Water management ; Water supply ; Water quality ; Water security ; Water pollution ; Water use ; Water availability ; Waterborne diseases ; Sanitation ; Food security ; Food production ; Diet ; Sustainable agriculture ; Agricultural systems ; Drinking water ; Climate change ; Policy making ; Economic aspects ; Equity ; Landscape ; Public health ; Wastewater treatment ; Ecosystem services ; Communities ; Risk management ; Irrigation water
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: IWMI Record No: H048974)
(3 MB)
Water and nutrition are linked in multiple ways, but few of these interlinkages are well understood. What is, for example, the exact relationship between water pollution and health or between water resource management and nutrition? Even less is known about the interactions across these various linkages. The importance of better understanding these connections has been highlighted as we pursue the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which challenge mankind to meet both water security as well as food and nutrition security goals, while also improving water-based ecosystems. It has become increasingly clear that progress toward these goals can only be achieved if measures in the food and nutrition space (SDG 2) do not constrain progress on water (SDG 6) and if measures undertaken to support targets under one of these SGDs also support the outcomes of the other. This paper provides an overview of water–nutrition linkages as reflected in the SDGs, and it identifies key gaps in these linkages and suggests a way forward to support the achievement of both water and nutrition goals and targets.
12 Abeywardana, N.; Schutt, B.; Wagalawatta, T.; Bebermeier, W. 2019. Indigenous agricultural systems in the dry zone of Sri Lanka: management transformation assessment and sustainability. Sustainability, 11(3): 1-22. [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030910]
Agricultural systems ; Agricultural practices ; Sustainable agriculture ; Arid zones ; Assessment ; Community management ; Irrigated farming ; Irrigated land ; Irrigation management ; Landscape ; Participatory management ; Indigenous knowledge ; Water harvesting ; Water management ; Water tanks ; Tank irrigation ; Paddy ; Cultivation ; Stakeholders ; Farmers organizations ; Socioeconomic environment ; Soils / Sri Lanka / Anuradhapura
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049148)
(9.30 MB) (9.30 MB)
The tank-based irrigated agricultural system in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka is one of the oldest historically evolved agricultural systems in the world. The main component of the system consists of a connected series of man-made tanks constructed in shallow valleys to store, convey and utilize water for paddy cultivation. Up to 10,000 tanks originating from the heydays of ancient kingdoms are still integrated in the current agricultural landscape. During the last two millennia, this indigenous system has undergone many changes in technological, management and socio-cultural norms. This research aimed to analyze the current management practices and existing indigenous aspects of the Dry Zone irrigated agricultural system from the viewpoint of farmers who are the main stakeholders of the system. Altogether, 49 semi-structured interviews were conducted in seven villages in the Anuradhapura district and a detailed survey was conducted in the village of Manewa with a mixed research approach. The basic elements of the indigenous landscape, agricultural practices and management structures based on Farmer Organizations were mapped and examined in detail. The analysis of results shows that the sustainability of the indigenous agricultural system is vulnerable to rapid changes due to modernization, market changes, education levels, and inconsistent management decisions. The case study demonstrates the value of preserving indigenous agricultural systems and the negative outcomes of current management interventions that neglect the indigenous system. Therefore, careful interventions and innovations are needed to adapt the tank-based indigenous agricultural system of the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka so as to preserve ecological and socio-economic sustainability.
13 Gonzalez-Chang, M.; Wratten, S. D.; Shields, M. W.; Costanza, R.; Dainese, M.; Gurr, G. M.; Johnson, J.; Karp, D. S.; Ketelaar, J. W.; Nboyine, J.; Pretty, J.; Rayl, R.; Sandhu, H.; Walker, M.; Zhou, W. 2020. Understanding the pathways from biodiversity to agro-ecological outcomes: a new, interactive approach. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 301:107053. (Online first) [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2020.107053]
Agroecology ; Biodiversity ; Agricultural systems ; Intensification ; Sustainability ; Ecosystem services ; Food security ; Policy making
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049858)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880920302383/pdfft?md5=1ecde1cd3dadc2bf058dd70d5b81b1a6&pid=1-s2.0-S0167880920302383-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049858.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049858.pdf
(0.71 MB) (724 KB)
The adoption of agro-ecological practices in agricultural systems worldwide can contribute to increased food production without compromising future food security, especially under the current biodiversity loss and climate change scenarios. Despite the increase in publications on agro-ecological research and practices during the last 35 years, a weak link between that knowledge and changed farmer practices has led to few examples of agro-ecological protocols and effective delivery systems to agriculturalists. In an attempt to reduce this gap, we synthesised the main concepts related to biodiversity and its functions by creating a web-based interactive spiral (www.biodiversityfunction.com). This tool explains and describes a pathway for achieving agro-ecological outcomes, starting from the basic principle of biodiversity and its functions to enhanced biodiversity on farms. Within this pathway, 11 key steps are identified and sequentially presented on a web platform through which key players (farmers, farmer networks, policy makers, scientists and other stakeholders) can navigate and learn. Because in many areas of the world the necessary knowledge needed for achieving the adoption of particular agro-ecological techniques is not available, the spiral approach can provide the necessary conceptual steps needed for obtaining and understanding such knowledge by navigating through the interactive pathway. This novel approach aims to improve our understanding of the sequence from the concept of biodiversity to harnessing its power to improve prospects for ‘sustainable intensification’ of agricultural systems worldwide.
14 Goswami, R.; Roy, K.; Dutta, S.; Ray, K.; Sarkar, S.; Brahmachari, K.; Nanda, M. K.; Mainuddin, M.; Banerjee, H.; Timsina, J.; Majumdar, K. 2021. Multi-faceted impact and outcome of COVID-19 on smallholder agricultural systems: integrating qualitative research and fuzzy cognitive mapping to explore resilient strategies. Agricultural Systems, 189:103051. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103051]
Smallholders ; Agricultural systems ; COVID-19 ; Pandemics ; Cyclones ; Coping strategies ; Irrigation water ; Salinity ; Crop production ; Soil fertility ; Livestock ; Market access ; Labour ; Farmers ; Household income ; Household expenditure ; Stakeholders ; Nongovernmental organizations ; Villages ; Qualitative analysis / India / West Bengal / Sundarbans
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050287)
(4.61 MB)
The shock of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has disrupted food systems worldwide. Such disruption, affecting multiple systems interfaces in smallholder agriculture, is unprecedented and needs to be understood from multi-stakeholder perspectives. The multiple loops of causality in the pathways of impact renders the system outcomes unpredictable. Understanding the nature of such unpredictable pathways is critical to identify present and future systems intervention strategies. Our study aims to explore the multiple pathways of present and future impact created by the pandemic and “Amphan” cyclonic storm on smallholder agricultural systems. Also, we anticipate the behaviour of the systems elements under different realistic scenarios of intervention. We explored the severity and multi-faceted impacts of the pandemic on vulnerable smallholder agricultural production systems through in-depth interactions with key players at the micro-level. It provided contextual information, and revealed critical insights to understand the cascading effect of the pandemic and the cyclone on farm households. We employed thematic analysis of in-depth interviews with multiple stakeholders in Sundarbans areas in eastern India, to identify the present and future systems outcomes caused by the pandemic, and later compounded by “Amphan”. The immediate adaptation strategies of the farmers were engaging family labors, exchanging labors with neighbouring farmers, borrowing money from relatives, accessing free food rations, replacing dead livestock, early harvesting, and reclamation of waterbodies. The thematic analysis identified several systems elements, such as harvesting, marketing, labor accessibility, among others, through which the impacts of the pandemic were expressed. Drawing on these outputs, we employed Mental Modeler, a Fuzzy-Logic Cognitive Mapping tool, to develop multi-stakeholder mental models for the smallholder agricultural systems of the region. Analysis of the mental models indicated the centrality of “Kharif” (monsoon) rice production, current farm income, and investment for the next crop cycle to determine the pathways and degree of the dual impact on farm households. Current household expenditure, livestock, and soil fertility were other central elements in the shared mental model. Scenario analysis with multiple stakeholders suggested enhanced market access and current household income, sustained investment in farming, rapid improvement in affected soil, irrigation water and livestock as the most effective strategies to enhance the resilience of farm families during and after the pandemic. This study may help in formulating short and long-term intervention strategies in the post-pandemic communities, and the methodological approach can be used elsewhere to understand perturbed socioecological systems to formulate anticipatory intervention strategies based on collective wisdom of stakeholders.
15 Brouziyne, Youssef; Abouabdillah, A.; Bouchaou, L.; Attar, O.; Ez-zaouy, Y.; Benaabidate, L.; Chehbouni, A. 2022. Toward better preparedness of Mediterranean rainfed agricultural systems to future climate-change-induced water stress: study case of Bouregreg Watershed (Morocco). Environmental Sciences Proceedings, 16(1):58. [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/environsciproc2022016058]
Rainfed agriculture ; Agricultural systems ; Water stress ; Climate change ; Forecasting ; Drought ; Crop yield ; Watersheds ; Catchment areas ; Water resources ; Water availability ; Models / Mediterranean Region / Morocco / Bouregreg Watershed
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H051244)
https://www.mdpi.com/2673-4931/16/1/58/pdf?version=1655352260
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H051244.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H051244.pdf
(1.82 MB) (1.82 MB)
Improving the preparedness of agricultural systems to future climate-change-induced phenomena, such as drought-induced water stress, and the predictive analysis of their vulnerability is crucial. In this study, a hybrid modeling approach based on the SWAT model was built to understand the response of major crops and streamflow in the Bouregreg catchment in Morocco to future droughts. During dry years, the simulation results showed a dramatic decrease in water resources availability (up to -40%) with uneven impacts across the study catchment area. Crop-wise, significant decreases in rainfed wheat productivity (up to -55%) were simulated during future extremely dry growing seasons.
16 Alam, Mohammad Faiz; McClain, M.; Sikka, Alok; Pande, S. 2022. Understanding human-water feedbacks of interventions in agricultural systems with agent based models: a review. Environmental Research Letters, 17(10):103003. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac91e1]
Agricultural systems ; Water management ; Water systems ; Agent-based models ; Hydrological modelling ; Groundwater ; Surface water ; Irrigation ; Sustainability ; Equity ; Farmers ; Socioeconomic aspects
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H051439)
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ac91e1/pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H051439.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H051439.pdf
(1.27 MB) (1.27 MB)
Increased variability of the water cycle manifested by climate change is a growing global threat to agriculture with strong implications for food and livelihood security. Thus, there is an urgent need for adaptation in agriculture. Agricultural water management (AWM) interventions, interventions for managing water supply and demand, are extensively promoted and implemented as adaptation measures in multiple development programs globally. Studies assessing these adaptation measures overwhelmingly focus on positive impacts, however, there is a concern that these studies may be biased towards well-managed and successful projects and often miss out on reporting negative externalities. These externalities result from coevolutionary dynamics of human-water systems as AWM interventions impact hydrological flows and their use and adoption is shaped by the societal response. We review the documented externalities of AWM interventions and present a conceptual framework classifying negative externalities linked to water and human systems into negative hydrological externalities and unexpected societal feedbacks. We show that these externalities can lead to long term unsustainable and inequitable outcomes. Understanding how the externalities lead to undesirable outcomes demands rigorous modeling of the feedbacks between human and water systems, for which we discuss the key criteria that such models should meet. Based on these criteria, we showcase that differentiated and limited inclusion of key feedbacks in current water modeling approaches (e.g., hydrological models, hydro-economic, and water resource models) is a critical limitation and bottleneck to understanding and predicting negative externalities of AWM interventions. To account for the key feedback, we find Agent Based Modeling (ABM) as the method that has the potential to meet the key criteria. Yet there are gaps that need to be addressed in the context of ABM as a tool to unravel the negative externalities of AWM interventions. We carry out a systemic review of ABM application to agricultural systems, capturing how it is currently being applied and identifying the knowledge gaps that need to be bridged to unravel the negative externalities of AWM interventions. We find that ABM has been extensively used to model agricultural systems and, in many cases, the resulting externalities with unsustainable and inequitable outcomes. However, gaps remain in terms of limited use of integrated surface-groundwater hydrological models, inadequate representation of farmers' behavior with heavy reliance on rational choice or simple heuristics and ignoring heterogeneity of farmers' characteristics within a population.
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