Your search found 38 records
1 Clover, T. A.; Nieuwoudt, W .L. 2003. An economic evaluation of area yield insurance for small-scale cane growers. Development Southern Africa, 20(2):293-305.
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: P 6338 Record No: H032317)
2 Dube, L. T.; Jury, M. R. 2003. Structure and precursors of the 1992/93 drought in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa from NCEP reanalysis data. Water SA, 29(2):201-207.
(Location: IWMI-HQ Call no: P 6391 Record No: H032568)
3 Wynne, A. T.; Lyne, M. C. 2003. An empirical analysis of factors affecting the growth of small-scale poultry enterprises in KwaZulu - Natal. Development Southern Africa, 20(5):563-578.
Animal husbandry ; Models ; Institutional development ; Economic aspects / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal
(Location: IWMI-SA Call no: PER Record No: H033998)
4 Crookes, T. J.; Lyne, M. C. 2003. Efficiency and equity gains in the rental market for arable land: Observations from a communal area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Development Southern Africa, 20(5):579-593.
Catchment areas ; Households ; Income ; Farm size ; Land use ; Income ; Land management ; Models ; Farmers / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal / Upper Tugela Catchment
(Location: IWMI-SA Call no: PER Record No: H034482)
5 Modi, A. T. 2003. What do subsistence farmers know about indigenous crops and organic farming? Preliminary experience in KwaZulu-Natal. Development Southern Africa, 20(5):675-684.
(Location: IWMI-SA Call no: PER Record No: H034002)
6 Versfeld, D. B.; Le Maitre, D. C.; Chapman, R. A. 1998. Alien invading plants and water resources in South Africa: A preliminary assessment. Pretoria, South Africa: Water Research Commission. 149p. + appendices. (WRC Report No.TT 99/98)
Water resources ; Rivers ; Catchment areas ; Plants ; Risks ; Control methods ; Stream flow ; Remote sensing ; Mapping / South Africa / Lesotho / KwaZulu Natal / Northern Cape
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: 333.91 G178 VER Record No: H040403)
7 O’reilly, S.; Keane, M.; Enright, P. (Eds.) 2007. Proceedings of the 16th International Farm Management Association Congress: A vibrant rural economy – The challenge for balance. University College Cork, Cork, Ireland 15-20 July 2007. Vol. 1. Cork, Ireland: International Farm Management Association. 473p.
Horticulture ; Organic fertilizers ; Sugarcane ; Agricultural policy ; Dairy farms ; Food security ; Rural economy ; Marketing ; Farm income ; Cotton / New Zealand / Bulgaria / Netherlands / South Africa / Kenya / Uganda / Tanzania / Ireland / Kwazulu-Natal
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: 630 G000 ORE Record No: H040765)
8 Booysen, H. J.; Viljoen, M. F. 1999. Flood damage functions, models and a computer program for irrigation and urban areas in South Africa. Vol. 2 - Urban areas. Pretoria, South Africa: Water Research Commission. 156p. (WRC Report No. 690/2/99)
Urban areas ; Flood plains ; Flooding ; Damage ; Computer software ; Models ; Irrigation land ; Rivers ; Land use ; Surveys ; Policy / South Africa / Swartkops River Area / Chatty River Area / KwaZulu Natal / Mfolozi Flood Plain / Soweto-on-Sea / Despatch / Uitenhage
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: 338.19 G178 BOO Record No: H044216)
(0.52 MB)
9 Bossio, Deborah; van der Zaag, P.; Jewitt, G.; Mahoo, H. (Eds.) 2011. Smallholder system innovation for integrated watershed management in Sub-Saharan Africa. Agricultural Water Management, 98(11):1683-1773. (Special issue on "Smallholder systems innovations for integrated watershed management in Sub-Saharan Africa" with contributions by IWMI authors).
Watershed management ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Yields ; Tillage ; Farming systems ; Dry farming ; Rainfed farming ; Case studies ; Water productivity ; Water allocation ; Water use ; Simulation models ; Grasslands ; Sloping land ; Land degradation ; Spate irrigation ; Satellite imagery ; River basins / Africa South of Sahara / South Africa / Tanzania / KwaZulu-Natal / Makanya catchment / Thukela River Basin / Pangani River Basin / South Pare Mountains
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: PER Record No: H044307)
10 Muchara, B.; Ortmann, G.; Mudhara, M.; Wale, E. 2016. Irrigation water value for potato farmers in the Mooi River Irrigation Scheme of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a residual value approach. Agricultural Water Management, 164(Part 2):243-252. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2015.10.022]
Irrigation water ; Economic value ; Water management ; Water availability ; Agricultural production ; Potatoes ; Water requirements ; Water distribution ; Irrigation schemes ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Labor ; Marketing ; Models / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal / Mooi River Irrigation Scheme
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047739)
(0.36 MB)
Explaining variation of smallholder irrigation water values is a critical element in water allocation and management. However, it has been hampered by data deficiencies at smallholder level. Both primary and secondary data were used to estimate the value of irrigation water for smallholder farmers in the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. The paper applied the residual value method to estimate water values among smallholder farmers, focusing on the potato crop. The results indicated that, on average, farmers in the Mooi River Irrigation Scheme applied less water (61.4%) to their potato crop when compared to the irrigation crop water requirements, ranging between 14% and 174%. Crops with relatively low gross margins like maize and dry beans yielded lower water values of US$0.12/m3 and US $0.10/m3 respectively, while tomatoes yielded US $1.07/m3. The average water value for potatoes was US$0.01/m3, ranging from -US$1.67/m3 to US$1.13/m3. Location of the irrigated plot along the main canal significantly influenced variability in water value, which accounted for 12.5% of variation. The number of irrigation cycles and education level of the farmer explained 5.8% and 5.9% of variation in water values, respectively. The paper illustrates that where water is provided free of charge to a large group of users, unequal distribution, poor management and inefficient use of water are common. Negative water values also revealed under-performance of smallholder farmers. A paradigm shift toward cost recovery mechanisms to encourage effective irrigation water management and water-use efficiency might need to be considered for smallholder farmers. This can also be coupled by strengthening policies and approaches that encourage user participation in water management.
11 Mathebula, J.; Jonas, S.; Nhemachena, Charles. 2017. Estimation of household income diversification in South Africa: a case study of three provinces. South African Journal of Science, 113(1/2):1-9. [doi: https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2017/20160073]
Diversification ; Households ; Income ; Urban areas ; Rural areas ; Poverty ; Living standards ; Economic aspects ; Businesses ; Labour ; Financing ; Social aspects ; Case studies / South Africa / Eastern Cape / Limpopo / KwaZulu-Natal
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047999)
http://www.sajs.co.za/system/tdf/publications/pdf/SAJS-113-1-2-Mathebula_ResearchArticle.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=35462&force=
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H047999.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H047999.pdf
(585 KB)
We estimated household income diversification in settlement types of the poorest provinces in South Africa – the Eastern Cape, Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal. We obtained data from the 2010/2011 Income and Expenditure Survey from Statistics South Africa and Wave 3 data from the National Income Dynamics Study. We used the number of income sources, the number of income earners and the Shannon Diversity Index to estimate income diversification in the study provinces. The results show that households in the traditional and urban formal areas diversified income sources to a greater extent than households in urban informal and rural formal settlements. The varied degrees of income diversification in the three provinces suggest that targeted policy initiatives aimed at enhancing household income are important in these provinces.
12 Mendez-Barrientos, L. E.; Kemerink, J. S.; Wester, P.; Molle, Francois. 2018. Commercial farmers’ strategies to control water resources in South Africa: an empirical view of reform. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 34(2):245-258. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2016.1253544]
Water resources ; Commercial farming ; Farmers ; Strategies ; Water policy ; Land reform ; Legislation ; Water rights ; Water user associations ; Irrigation water ; Infrastructure ; Domestic trade ; Catchment areas ; Reservoirs / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal / Thukela River Basin
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048575)
(1.45 MB)
This article shows how large-scale commercial farmers, individually and collectively, are responding to land and water reform processes in the Thukela River basin, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. With a high degree of innovative agency, commercial farmers have effectively executed four strategies, enabling them to adapt and use their access to resources to neutralize multiple water reform efforts that once promised to be catalysts for inclusive change in the post-apartheid era. It is likely that policy alone will not facilitate the envisioned transformation, if local practices are not sufficiently understood and anticipated by the governmental officials charged with the implementation of water reform processes.
13 Dirwai, T. L.; Senzanje, A.; Mudhara, M. 2019. Water governance impacts on water adequacy in smallholder irrigation schemes in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Water Policy, 21(1):127-146. [doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2018.149]
Water governance ; Irrigation schemes ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Irrigation management ; Water management ; Water user associations ; Regression analysis ; Models / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal / Mooi-River Irrigation Scheme / Tugela Ferry Irrigation Scheme
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049137)
(0.65 MB)
Water adequacy is central to maximised agricultural production in irrigation schemes. Smallholder Irrigation Schemes (SISs) are designed to distribute water efficiently, adequately and equitably. Water governance, defined as the institutions, processes, procedures, rules and regulations involved in water management, plays an important role in water allocation and subsequently water adequacy. The intersectoral institutions involved in water governance in SISs, i.e., government, Water User Associations (WUAs), Irrigation Management Committees (IMCs) and traditional authorities, interact to formulate and design policies for running SISs. However, multilevel interaction amongst the active stakeholders at multiple levels shapes policy and underlies SIS performance. This research aimed to investigate the impacts water governance had on adequacy of water in irrigation schemes and was premised on the hypothesis that governance had no effect on water adequacy. Water adequacy describes water supply relative to demand. Adequacy indicates whether the water delivery system supplies the required amount to a section in the irrigation scheme over a period of time (daily, monthly or seasonally). Two irrigation schemes, the Mooi-River Irrigation Scheme (MRIS) and Tugela Ferry Irrigation Scheme (TFIS) were used as case studies. A descriptive analysis showed that 86% of the farmers in the TFIS had adequate water, whereas 24% had water adequacy in the MRIS. A Binary Logit model was employed to investigate the factors that influence water adequacy among irrigators. The regression model identified eight statistically significant factors that influenced water adequacy: the irrigation scheme, location of plot within the scheme, training in water management, training in irrigation, SIS irrigators’ knowledge about the government’s aims, availability of water licences, payment of water fees and satisfaction with the irrigation schedule. The study concluded that governance factors had influence on water adequacy in the selected SISs. The implication is that stakeholders should make irrigators aware of government Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) policy and strategies. The study recommends that the SISs introduce rules, procedures and protocols to support irrigators to enhance scheme governance and lead to the realisation of government policies.
14 de Villiers, S. 2019. Microfibre pollution hotspots in river sediments adjacent to South Africa’s coastline. Water SA, 45(1):97-102. [doi: https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v45i1.11]
Rivers ; Water pollution ; Microplastics ; Sediment pollution ; Coastal area ; Freshwater ecosystems ; Water availability ; Water supply ; Environmental effects ; Household consumption ; Health hazards ; Rural communities / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049227)
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/wsa/article/download/182970/172675
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049227.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049227.pdf
(2.05 MB) (2.05 MB)
River sediment samples collected in the lower reaches of catchments along South Africa’s coastline have microfibre levels ranging from 0 to 567 fibres/dm3. This range is similar to those of sandy beach sediments along the coast. Much higher microfibre levels are observed in KwaZulu-Natal and the Wild Coast region, compared to the Cape South Coast. There is a significant positive relationship between river sediment microfibre levels, and the percentage of households in the catchment area that do not have access to piped water. The implication is that rural communities that rely on rivers as their primary or only source of water, including for directly washing clothes in, may be significantly contributing to microfibre pollution of freshwater aquatic ecosystems. If microfibre pollution is found to have ecosystem or human health implications such as chemical toxicity or fibre-induced mesothelioma, this will be detrimental to river biota and these communities.
15 Chipfupa, U.; Wale, E. 2020. Linking earned income, psychological capital and social grant dependency: empirical evidence from rural KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) and implications for policy. Journal of Economic Structures, 9:22. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40008-020-00199-0]
Household income ; Earned income ; Psychological factors ; Socioeconomic environment ; Grants ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Living standards ; Rural communities ; Irrigation schemes ; Gender ; Women ; Development policies ; Motivation ; Models / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049776)
https://journalofeconomicstructures.springeropen.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s40008-020-00199-0
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049776.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049776.pdf
(1.07 MB) (1.07 MB)
Understanding the motivation that smallholders have for working and earning their livelihood is critical in enhancing the effectiveness of agricultural policies. This is especially important in a country like South Africa where social grant is an important source of unearned income. The study sought to find out what affects smallholders’ motivation to work by assessing the relationship between earned income, psychological capital and social grant dependency. We use data from 458 smallholders in four irrigation communities in rural KwaZulu-Natal and employ a complementary loglog fractional response model to analyse the data. The study revealed that endowment with positive psychological capital, gender, membership to an irrigation scheme and land ownership positively affect smallholders’ propensity to earn their livelihoods from farm and non-farm income. Social grant support and dependency ratio negatively affect the same. The findings support the thesis that, if not properly managed, social transfers can have a negative impact on smallholders’ motivation to work and earn their livelihoods, resulting in a dependency syndrome. Depending on the context, spatial differences can either positively or negatively affect farmers’ motivation to work. In conclusion, limited focus on the human and social capital development and hence psychological capital affect smallholders’ propensity to work. Small-scale irrigation schemes remain a viable option for increasing employment and incomes in the sector, whilst social and cultural norms continue to reduce women’s ability to engage in economic activities. The paper recommends the need to recognise the critical importance of psychological capital (mindset), streamline and improve targeting of social grant support, promote smallholder irrigation and invest in the infrastructure that enhances participation of women in economic activities.
16 Dlangalala, S. F.; Mudhara, M. 2020. Determinants of farmer awareness of water governance across gender dimensions in smallholder irrigation schemes in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Water SA, 46(2):234-241. [doi: https://doi.org/10.17159/wsa/2020.v46.i2.8238]
Water governance ; Farmers participation ; Awareness ; Smallholders ; Irrigation schemes ; Water management ; Gender ; Water institutions ; Water user associations ; Decision making ; Stakeholders ; Policies ; Households ; Socioeconomic environment / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal / Mooi River Irrigation Scheme / Tugela Ferry Irrigation Scheme / Ndumo Irrigation Scheme
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049791)
(0.23 MB) (236 KB)
Water is a vital resource for irrigated agricultural production. Its availability and accessibility are critical for alleviating poverty and achieving food security in rural households. However, smallholder irrigated agriculture in South Africa faces limited water supply emanating from scheme governance problems, with weak institutional arrangements that fail to equitably and effectively govern water resources. South African water policy has been transforming over the years. However, statutory laws remain unknown in smallholder irrigation schemes. This study sought to assess farmer awareness of water governance and identify the determinants of farmer awareness of water governance dimensions across gender dimensions in Mooi River, Tugela Ferry, and Ndumo irrigation schemes. The study employed principal component analysis to generate water governance indices, that is, formal institutions, the existence and effectiveness of scheme constitutions, scheme committees and enforcement of informal rules in the scheme. The ordinary least square regression technique was then used to identify factors determining farmer awareness of formal and informal water institutions in the three irrigation schemes. The findings suggest that formal water institutions are unknown and factors such as household characteristics, scheme location, stakeholder participation and involvement in scheme decision-making processes significantly influence awareness of governance. Therefore, there is a need to raise farmer awareness of formal water institutions and to strengthen the informal institutions which are functional, recognised and in line with irrigation management transfer.
17 Phakathi, S.; Sinyolo, S.; Marire, J.; Fraser, G. 2021. Farmer-led institutional innovations in managing smallholder irrigation schemes in KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape provinces, South Africa. Agricultural Water Management, 248:106780. (Online first) [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2021.106780]
Farmer managed irrigation systems ; Institutions ; Innovation ; Irrigation schemes ; Smallholders ; Decision making ; Women ; Participatory management ; Irrigation water ; Water resources / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal / Eastern Cape / Tugela Ferry Irrigation Scheme / Mooi River Irrigation Scheme / Qamata Irrigation Scheme / Zanyokwe Irrigation Scheme
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050226)
(0.50 MB)
Farmer-led institutional innovations have been touted as the key to improving the management of water resources in irrigation schemes. However, little is known about them in South Africa. This study documents institutional innovations by 28 farmer groups located on four irrigation schemes in KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape provinces, South Africa. Induced institutional innovation theory, Ostrom’s eight design principles, and thematic analysis of interview transcripts were used to analyse the data. The study results show that 21 groups engaged in institutional innovations, indicating high levels of farmer-led innovative activity among these irrigators. Examples of innovations include, among others, the introduction of a secret voting system to improve participation of marginalised people in decision-making processes, designing daily rotation rosters to reduce conflicts, as well as using an attendance register for participation in group activities, and rewarding members according to their participation levels. The majority of these innovations were designed to improve the graduated sanction mechanism (22.2%), enhancing the penalty system for non-compliance; improving collective action arrangements (27.8%); monitoring attendance of group meetings (18.5%); democratising decision making; and ensuring equitable water distribution. These innovations focused mainly on addressing challenges, rather than exploiting opportunities, and were mostly incremental (94%), involving an adjustment or reinterpretation of rules and regulations. Radical institutional innovations constituted only 6%. The innovative groups were smaller in size and experienced less conflict than the non-innovative groups. Both groups had low levels of education and were mostly dominated by female farmers. The study recommends that the government should build on the agency of the irrigators to improve the effectiveness and legitimacy of institutional arrangements in irrigation schemes. The study’s findings suggest that small groups should be actively promoted, while tailored training should be offered based on the groups’ specific needs, to improve institutional innovations in the smallholder irrigation sector in South Africa.
18 Patrick, H. O. 2021. Climate change and water insecurity in rural uMkhanyakude District Municipality: an assessment of coping strategies for rural South Africa. H2Open Journal, 4(1):29-46. [doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/h2oj.2021.009]
Climate change ; Water insecurity ; Water security ; Coping strategies ; Vulnerability ; Water supply ; Water reuse ; Water conservation ; Early warning systems ; Rural communities ; Households ; Socioeconomic aspects / South Africa / uMkhanyakude / KwaZulu-Natal
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050352)
https://iwaponline.com/h2open/article-pdf/4/1/29/872592/h2oj0040029.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H050352.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H050352.pdf
(0.57 MB) (588 KB)
The vulnerability of Africa to climate change extremes and eventual impacts is extremely high due to the weak coping strategies prevalent in the continent. The peculiarity of South Africa to these vulnerabilities, especially for water security, is an issue of socioeconomic and policy issue. Based on the premises of human security, the study assesses the coping strategies of rural communities in South Africa, focusing on uMkhanyakude District Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal province, given the effects of climate change-induced water scarcity on the area. The study employed a multilayered descriptive mixed method triangulation approach. It focused specifically on the connection between water and climate change and the adopted everyday vertical and horizontal coping strategies. The findings revealed a strong correlation between the behavioral and traditional coping strategies in the study area, water depletion/scarcity, and climate change. It also showed that government institutions are reactionary in their response to climate change-induced impacts. The study, therefore, recommends a pre-resilience mechanism that makes institutions and individuals proactive rather than adopting a reactionary post-resilience strategy in response to the effects of climate change-induced water security.
19 Phali, L.; Mudhara, M.; Ferrer, S.; Makombe, G. 2021. Household-level perceptions of governance in smallholder irrigation schemes in KwaZulu-Natal Province. Irrigation and Drainage, 12p. (Online first) [doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2659]
Water governance ; Irrigation schemes ; Households ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Small scale systems ; Stakeholders ; Institutions ; Land tenure ; Irrigation water ; Principal component analysis / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050765)
(0.78 MB)
Good governance is a prerequisite for better management of common-use resources. Awareness of institutions, inclusion of members in decision-making processes, stakeholder engagement and transparency are needed for good governance, which enhances the sustainable use of communal water resources. This paper therefore considers perceptions of farmers on irrigation scheme governance in its various dimensions. The study uses household data of 341 farmers drawn from four irrigation schemes in KwaZulu-Natal. The results show that farmers who are satisfied with the informal institutions, being the rules and norms set locally to govern the scheme farmers, value the involvement of the tribal authorities in scheme management, including their contribution to rule enforcement. Age, agricultural training, water adequacy, participation in scheme activities, psychological capital and land tenure have a positive effect on perceptions of governance constructs. Farmers are satisfied with the informal institutions governing the schemes and therefore the study recommends the inclusion of informal institutions in policy formulation. Farmers should be empowered through training and be made aware of formal institutions applicable to their irrigation scheme, and stakeholder engagement in the schemes should be strengthened.
20 Brewer, K.; Clulow, A.; Sibanda, M.; Gokool, S.; Naiken, V.; Mabhaudhi, Tafadzwanashe. 2022. Predicting the chlorophyll content of maize over phenotyping as a proxy for crop health in smallholder farming systems. Remote Sensing, 14(3):518. [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14030518]
Maize ; Chlorophylls ; Plant health ; Forecasting ; Smallholders ; Farming systems ; Precision agriculture ; Machine learning ; Unmanned aerial vehicles / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal / Swayimani
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050903)
(6.76 MB) (6.76 MB)
Smallholder farmers depend on healthy and productive crop yields to sustain their socio-economic status and ensure livelihood security. Advances in South African precision agriculture in the form of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) provide spatially explicit near-real-time information that can be used to assess crop dynamics and inform smallholder farmers. The use of UAVs with remote-sensing techniques allows for the acquisition of high spatial resolution data at various spatio-temporal planes, which is particularly useful at the scale of fields and farms. Specifically, crop chlorophyll content is assessed as it is one of the best known and reliable indicators of crop health, due to its biophysical pigment and biochemical processes that indicate plant productivity. In this regard, the study evaluated the utility of multispectral UAV imagery using the random forest machine learning algorithm to estimate the chlorophyll content of maize through the various growth stages. The results showed that the near-infrared and red-edge wavelength bands and vegetation indices derived from these wavelengths were essential for estimating chlorophyll content during the phenotyping of maize. Furthermore, the random forest model optimally estimated the chlorophyll content of maize over the various phenological stages. Particularly, maize chlorophyll was best predicted during the early reproductive, late vegetative, and early vegetative growth stages to RMSE accuracies of 40.4 µmol/m-2 , 39 µmol/m-2 , and 61.6 µmol/m-2 , respectively. The least accurate chlorophyll content results were predicted during the mid-reproductive and late reproductive growth stages to RMSE accuracies of 66.6 µmol/m-2 and 69.6 µmol/m-2 , respectively, as a consequence of a hailstorm. A resultant chlorophyll variation map of the maize growth stages captured the spatial heterogeneity of chlorophyll within the maize field. Therefore, the study’s findings demonstrate that the use of remotely sensed UAV imagery with a robust machine algorithm is a critical tool to support the decision-making and management in smallholder farms.
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