Your search found 27 records
1 Mabhaudhi, T.; Mpandeli, S.; Madhlopa, A.; Modi, A. T.; Backeberg, G.; Nhamo, Luxon. 2016. Southern Africa’s water-energy nexus: towards regional integration and development. Water, 8(6):1-21. [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/w8060235]
Policy making ; Sustainable development ; Regional development ; Water resources ; Energy resources ; Energy generation ; Agriculture ; Watercourses ; Water scarcity ; Water supply ; Water requirements ; International waters ; River basins ; Poverty ; Economic development ; Riparian zones ; Population growth / Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047590)
(2.21 MB)
The Southern African Development Community’s (SADC) water and energy sectors are under increasing pressure due to population growth and agricultural and industrial development. Climate change is also negatively impacting on the region’s water and energy resources. As the majority of SADC’s population lives in poverty, regional development and integration are underpinned by water and energy security as the watercourses in the region are transboundary in nature. This paper reviews the region’s water and energy resources and recommends policies based on the water–energy nexus approach. This is achieved by reviewing literature on water and energy resources as well as policy issues. Water resources governance provides a strong case to create a water–energy nexus platform to support regional planning and integration as SADC countries share similar climatic and hydrological conditions. However, there has been a gap between water and energy sector planning in terms of policy alignment and technical convergence. These challenges hinder national policies on delivering economic and social development goals, as well as constraining the regional goal of greater integration. Regional objectives on sustainable energy and access to clean water for all can only be achieved through the recognition of the water–energy nexus, championed in an integrated and sustainable manner. A coordinated regional water–energy nexus approach stimulates economic growth, alleviates poverty and reduces high unemployment rates. The shared nature of water and energy resources requires far more transboundary water–energy nexus studies to be done in the context of regional integration and policy formulation.
2 Nhamo, Luxon; Mabhaudhi, T.; Magombeyi, Manuel. 2016. Improving water sustainability and food security through increased crop water productivity in Malawi. Water, 8(9):1-12. [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/w8090411]
Food security ; Water management ; Water productivity ; Water scarcity ; Water use ; Freshwater ; Crop production ; Sustainability ; Agricultural production ; Evapotranspiration ; Population growth ; Urbanization ; Maize ; Rainfed farming ; Irrigation systems ; Smallholders / Malawi
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047747)
(1.48 MB)
Agriculture accounts for most of the renewable freshwater resource withdrawals in Malawi, yet food insecurity and water scarcity remain as major challenges. Despite Malawi’s vast water resources, climate change, coupled with increasing population and urbanisation are contributing to increasing water scarcity. Improving crop water productivity has been identified as a possible solution to water and food insecurity, by producing more food with less water, that is, to produce “more crop per drop”. This study evaluated crop water productivity from 2000 to 2013 by assessing crop evapotranspiration, crop production and agricultural gross domestic product (Ag GDP) contribution for Malawi. Improvements in crop water productivity were evidenced through improved crop production and productivity. These improvements were supported by increased irrigated area, along with improved agronomic practices. Crop water productivity increased by 33% overall from 2000 to 2013, resulting in an increase in maize production from 1.2 million metric tons to 3.6 million metric tons, translating to an average food surplus of 1.1 million metric tons. These developments have contributed to sustainable improved food and nutrition security in Malawi, which also avails more water for ecosystem functions and other competing economic sectors.
3 Mabhaudhi, T.; Mpandeli, S.; Chimonyo, V. G. P.; Nhamo, Luxon; Backeberg, G.; Modi, A. T. 2016. Prospects for improving irrigated agriculture in southern Africa – linking water, energy and food. Paper presented at the 2nd World Irrigation Forum, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 6-8 November 2016. 10p.
Farming systems ; Small scale farming ; Irrigated farming ; Agriculture ; Rainfed farming ; Cultivated land ; Food security ; Food insecurity ; Food production ; Water productivity ; Water scarcity ; Water use efficiency ; Nutritional losses ; Energy demand ; Energy consumption ; Infrastructure ; Dam construction ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Capacity building / Southern Africa / Africa South of Sahara
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047846)
(0.63 MB)
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) faces high incidence of food and nutrition insecurity. Consequently, increasing agricultural productivity has always featured prominently on regional agenda. The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme’s (CAADP) set a target to expand the area under irrigation by at least 5 million ha by 2025. This review assessed the current status of irrigated agriculture in SSA from a water–energy–food nexus perspective, focusing on southern Africa. Gaps and opportunities for improving irrigated agriculture were also assessed in terms of the feasible limits to which they can be exploited. Sub-Saharan Africa faces water scarcity and projections show that countries in SSA will face increased physical and / or economic water scarcity by 2025. However, with agriculture already accounting for more than 60% of water withdrawals, increasing area under irrigation could worsen the problem of water scarcity. Recurrent droughts experienced across SSA reaffirm the sensitive issue of food insecurity and water scarcity. The region also faces energy insecurity with most countries experiencing chronic power outages. Increasing area under irrigation will place additional demand on the already strained energy grids. Projections of an increasing population within SSA indicate increased food and energy demand; a growing middle class also adds to increasing food demand. This poses the question - is increasing irrigated agriculture a solution to water scarcity, food insecurity and energy shortages? This review recommends that, whilst there are prospects for increasing area under irrigation and subsequent agricultural productivity, technical planning should adopt a water–energy–food nexus approach to setting targets. Improving water productivity in irrigated agriculture could reduce water and energy use while increasing yield output.
4 Nhamo, Luxon; Ndlela, B.; Nhemachena, Charles; Mabhaudhi, T.; Mpandeli, S.; Matchaya, Greenwell. 2018. The water-energy-food nexus: climate risks and opportunities in southern Africa. Water, 10(5):1-18. [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050567]
Water resources ; Water availability ; Energy resources ; Food security ; Nexus ; Climate change ; Resilience ; International waters ; River basins ; Sustainable Development Goals ; Living standards ; Poverty ; Agricultural production ; SADC countries ; Regional development ; Institutions ; Policies ; Models ; Assessment / Southern Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048729)
(2.08 MB) (2.08 MB)
The discourse on the need for water, energy, and food security has dominated the development agenda of southern African countries, centred on improving livelihoods, building resilience, and regional integration. About 60% of the population in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) live in rural areas relying mainly on rainfed agriculture, lacking access to clean water and energy, yet the region is endowed with vast natural resources. The water-energy-food (WEF) nexus is a conceptual framework that presents opportunities for greater resource coordination, management, and policy convergence across sectors. This is particularly relevant in the SADC region as resources are transboundary and supports efforts linked to regional integration and inclusive socio-economic development and security. We conducted an appraisal of WEF-related policies and institutions in SADC and identified linkages among them. The present ‘silo’ approach in resource management and allocation, often conducted at the national level, contributes to the region’s failure to meet its development targets, exacerbating its vulnerabilities. The lack of coordination of WEF nexus synergies and trade-offs in planning often threatens the sustainability of development initiatives. We highlighted the importance of the WEF nexus to sustainably address the sectoral coordination of resources through harmonised institutions and policies, as well as setting targets and indicators to direct and monitor nexus developments. We illustrate the significance of the nexus in promoting inclusive development and transforming vulnerable communities into resilient societies. The study recommends a set of integrated assessment models to monitor and evaluate the implementation of WEF nexus targets. Going forward, we propose the adoption of a regional WEF nexus framework.
5 Mpandeli, S.; Naidoo, D.; Mabhaudhi, T.; Nhemachena, Charles; Nhamo, Luxon; Liphadzi, S.; Hlahla, S.; Modi, A. T. 2018. Climate change adaptation through the water-energy-food nexus in southern Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(10):1-19. [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102306]
Climate change adaptation ; Water resources ; Water management ; Energy resources ; Food resources ; Food security ; Nexus ; Sustainable development ; Communities ; Agricultural production ; Sanitation ; Public health ; Economic aspects ; Nutrition ; Hydropower / Southern Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048960)
(883 KB)
Climate change is a complex and cross-cutting problem that needs an integrated and transformative systems approach to respond to the challenge. Current sectoral approaches to climate change adaptation initiatives often create imbalances and retard sustainable development. Regional and international literature on climate change adaptation opportunities and challenges applicable to southern Africa from a water-energy-food (WEF) nexus perspective was reviewed. Specifically, this review highlights climate change impacts on water, energy, and food resources in southern Africa, while exploring mitigation and adaptation opportunities. The review further recommends strategies to develop cross-sectoral sustainable measures aimed at building resilient communities. Regional WEF nexus related institutions and legal frameworks were also reviewed to relate the WEF nexus to policy. Southern Africa is witnessing an increased frequency and intensity in climate change-associated extreme weather events, causing water, food, and energy insecurity. A projected reduction of 20% in annual rainfall by 2080 in southern Africa will only increase the regional socio-economic challenges. This is exacerbating regional resource scarcities and vulnerabilities. It will also have direct and indirect impacts on nutrition, human well-being, and health. Reduced agricultural production, lack of access to clean water, sanitation, and clean, sustainable energy are the major areas of concern. The region is already experiencing an upsurge of vector borne diseases (malaria and dengue fever), and water and food-borne diseases (cholera and diarrhoea). What is clear is that climate change impacts are cross-sectoral and multidimensional, and therefore require cross-sectoral mitigation and adaptation approaches. In this regard, a wellcoordinated and integrated WEF nexus approach offers opportunities to build resilient systems, harmonise interventions, and mitigate trade-offs and hence improve sustainability. This would be achieved through greater resource mobilisation and coordination, policy convergence across sectors, and targeting nexus points in the landscape. The WEF nexus approach has potential to increase the resilience of marginalised communities in southern Africa by contributing towards attaining the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 13).
6 Mabhaudhi, T.; Mpandeli, S.; Nhamo, Luxon; Chimonyo, V. G. P.; Nhemachena, Charles; Senzanje, A.; Naidoo, D.; Modi, A. T. 2018. Prospects for improving irrigated agriculture in Southern Africa: linking water, energy and food. Water, 10(12):1-16. [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121881]
Farming systems ; Small scale farming ; Irrigated farming ; Agriculture ; Food security ; Food insecurity ; Food production ; Water productivity ; Water accounting ; Energy resources ; Nexus ; Infrastructure ; Dams ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Capacity building / Southern Africa / Africa South of Sahara
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049042)
(1.74 MB)
Increasing agricultural productivity has always been a prominent feature on the regional agenda due to a high incidence of food and nutrition insecurity. This review assessed the current status of irrigated agriculture in southern Africa from a water–energy–food (WEF) nexus perspective. Gaps and opportunities for improving irrigated agriculture within the context of the WEF nexus were also assessed in terms of the feasible limits to which they can be exploited. Southern Africa faces water scarcity, and climate projections show that member states will face increased physical and/or economic water scarcity by as early as 2025, which will have negative impacts on water, energy and food production. Recurrent droughts experienced across the region reaffirm the sensitive issues of food and energy insecurity as well as water scarcity. Projections of an increasing population within the region indicate increased water, energy and food demand. With agriculture already accounting for about 70% of water withdrawals, increasing the area under irrigation will place additional demand on already strained energy grids and scarce water resources. This poses the question—is increasing irrigated agriculture a solution to improving water access, food security and energy supply? While there are prospects for increasing the area under irrigation and subsequent improvement in agricultural productivity, adopting a WEF nexus approach in doing so would mitigate trade-offs and unintended consequences. Consideration of the WEF nexus in integrated resources planning and management eliminates the possibilities of transferring problems from one sector to other, as it manages synergies and trade-offs. While it is acknowledged that improving water productivity in irrigated agriculture could reduce water and energy use while increasing yield output, there is a need to decide how such savings would then be reallocated. Any intervention to increase the irrigated area should be done in the context of a WEF nexus analytical framework to guide policy and decision-making. Technical planning should evolve around the WEF nexus approach in setting targets, as WEF nexus indicators would reveal the performance and impact of proposed interventions on any of the three WEF nexus components.
7 Nhamo, Luxon; Matchaya, Greenwell; Mabhaudhi, T.; Nhlengethwa, Sibusiso; Nhemachena, Charles; Mpandeli, S. 2019. Cereal production trends under climate change: impacts and adaptation strategies in Southern Africa. Agriculture, 9(2): 1-17. [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture9020030]
Agricultural production ; Agricultural policy ; Agricultural sector ; Cereal products ; Maize ; Climate change adaptation ; Drought ; Flooding ; Temperature ; Rainfall ; Water scarcity ; Food security ; Economic aspects / Southern Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049086)
(3.94 MB)
The increasing frequency and intensity of droughts and floods, coupled with increasing temperatures and declining rainfall totals, are exacerbating existing vulnerabilities in southern Africa. Agriculture is the most affected sector as 95% of cultivated area is rainfed. This review addressed trends in moisture stress and the impacts on crop production, highlighting adaptation possible strategies to ensure food security in southern Africa. Notable changes in rainfall patterns and deficiencies in soil moisture are estimated and discussed, as well as the impact of rainfall variability on crop production and proposed adaptation strategies in agriculture. Climate moisture index (CMI) was used to assess aridity levels. Southern Africa is described as a climate hotspot due to increasing aridity, low adaptive capacity, underdevelopment and marginalisation. Although crop yields have been increasing due to increases in irrigated area and use of improved seed varieties, they have not been able to meet the food requirements of a growing population, compromising regional food security targets. Most countries in the region depend on international aid to supplement yield deficits. The recurrence of droughts caused by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) continue devastating the region, affecting livelihoods, economies and the environment. An example is the 2015/2016 ENSO drought that caused the region to call for international aid to feed about 40 million people. In spite of the water scarcity challenges, cereal production continues to increase steadily due to increased investment in irrigated agriculture and improved crop varieties. Given the current and future vulnerability of the agriculture sector in southern Africa, proactive adaptation interventions are important to help farming communities develop resilient systems to adapt to the changes and variability in climate and other stressors.
8 Nhamo, Luxon; Mabhaudhi, T.; Modi, A. T. 2019. Preparedness or repeated short-term relief aid?: building drought resilience through early warning in southern Africa. Water SA, 45(1): 75-85. [doi: https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v45i1.09]
Early warning systems ; Drought resistance ; Water scarcity ; Water resources ; Disaster risk reduction ; Environmental degradation ; Natural disasters ; Rainfall ; Monitoring ; Environmental impact assessment ; Weather forecasting / Southern Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049087)
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/wsa/article/view/182966/172340
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049087.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049087.pdf
(985 KB)
Southern Africa is highly vulnerable to drought because of its dependence on climate-sensitive sectors of agriculture, hydroenergy and fisheries. Recurring droughts continue to impact rural livelihoods and degrade the environment. Drought severity in southern Africa is exacerbated by poor levels of preparedness and low adaptive capacity. Whilst weather extremes and hazards are inevitable, the preparedness to manage such hazards determines their impact and whether they become disasters. Southern Africa is often caught unprepared by drought as existing early warning systems lack the drought forecasting component, which often results in reactionary interventions as opposed to well-planned and proactive response mechanisms. This study assesses the spatio-temporal changes of rainfall and aridity in southern Africa through an analysis of long-term precipitation and evaporation trends from 1960 to 2007. Stakeholder consultation was conducted in Madagascar, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe during the peak of the 2015/16 drought, focusing on overall drought impacts, current water resource availability, existing early warning systems, adaptation mechanisms and institutional capacity to mitigate and manage droughts as part of overall disaster risk reduction strategies. Average rainfall has decreased by 26% in the region between 1960 and 2007, and aridity has increased by 11% between 1980 and 2007. The absence of drought forecasting and lack of institutional capacity to mitigate drought impede regional drought risk reduction initiatives. Existing multi-hazard early warning systems in the region focus on flooding and drought monitoring and assessment. Drought forecasting is often not given due consideration, yet it is a key component of early warning and resilience building. We propose a regional drought early warning framework, emphasising the importance of both monitoring and forecasting as being integral to a drought early warning system and building resilience to drought.
9 Mabhaudhi, T.; Chimonyo, V. G. P.; Hlahla, S.; Massawe, F.; Mayes, S.; Nhamo, Luxon; Modi, A. T. 2019. Prospects of orphan crops in climate change. Planta, 250(3):695-708. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-019-03129-y]
Climate change adaptation ; Food security ; Food insecurity ; Food systems ; Nutrition ; Genetic diversity ; Sustainability ; Cropping systems ; Water scarcity ; Water use efficiency ; Greenhouse gas emissions ; Agroecosystems ; Agrobiodiversity ; Socioeconomic environment ; Research and development ; Diversification ; Land use
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049145)
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs00425-019-03129-y.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049145.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049145.pdf
(0.97 MB) (988 KB)
Orphan crops play an important role in global food and nutrition security, and may have potential to contribute to sustainable food systems under climate change. Owing to reports of their potential under water scarcity, there is an argument to promote them to sustainably address challenges such as increasing drought and water scarcity, food and nutrition insecurity, environmental degradation, and employment creation under climate change. We conducted a scoping review using online databases to identify the prospects of orphan crops to contribute to (1) sustainable and healthy food systems, (2) genetic resources for future crop improvement, and (3) improving agricultural sustainability under climate change. The review found that, as a product of generations of landrace agriculture, several orphan crops are nutritious, resilient, and adapted to niche marginal agricultural environments. Including such orphan crops in the existing monocultural cropping systems could support more sustainable, nutritious, and diverse food systems in marginalised agricultural environments. Orphan crops also represent a broad gene pool for future crop improvement. The reduction in arable land due to climate change offers opportunities to expand the area under their production. Their suitability to marginal niche and low-input environments offers opportunities for low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from an agro-ecosystems, production, and processing perspective. This, together with their status as a sub-set of agro-biodiversity, offers opportunities to address socio-economic and environmental challenges under climate change. With research and development, and policy to support them, orphan crops could play an important role in climate-change adaptation, especially in the global south.
10 Mabhaudhi, T.; Nhamo, Luxon; Mpandeli, S.; Nhemachena, Charles; Senzanje, A.; Sobratee, N.; Chivenge, P. P.; Slotow, R.; Naidoo, D.; Liphadzi, S.; Modi, A. T. 2019. The water–energy–food nexus as a tool to transform rural livelihoods and well-being in southern Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(16):1-20. (Special issue: Human Adaptation to Climate Change) [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16162970]
Water resources ; Energy generation ; Food security ; Rural communities ; Living standards ; Public health ; Climate change adaptation ; Sustainable Development Goals ; Indicators ; Innovation ; Frameworks ; SADC countries ; Rural areas / Southern Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049315)
(2.21 MB) (2.21 MB)
About 60% of southern Africa’s population lives in rural areas with limited access to basic services and amenities such as clean and safe water, affordable and clean energy, and balanced and nutritious diets. Resource scarcity has direct and indirect impacts on nutrition, human health, and well-being of mostly poor rural communities. Climate change impacts in the region are manifesting through low crop yields, upsurge of vector borne diseases (malaria and dengue fever), and water and food-borne diseases (cholera and diarrhoea). This study applied a water–energy–food (WEF) nexus analytical livelihoods model with complex systems understanding to assess rural livelihoods, health, and well-being in southern Africa, recommending tailor-made adaptation strategies for the region aimed at building resilient rural communities. The WEF nexus is a decision support tool that improves rural livelihoods through integrated resource distribution, planning, and management, and ensures inclusive socio-economic transformation and development, and addresses related sustainable development goals, particularly goals 2, 3, 6 and 7. The integrated WEF nexus index for the region was calculated at 0.145, which is marginally sustainable, and indicating the region’s exposure to vulnerabilities, and reveals a major reason why the region fails to meet its developmental targets. The integrated relationship among WEF resources in southern Africa shows an imbalance and uneven resource allocation, utilisation and distribution, which normally results from a ‘siloed’ approach in resource management. The WEF nexus provides better adaptation options, as it guides decision making processes by identifying priority areas needing intervention, enhancing synergies, and minimising trade-offs necessary for resilient rural communities. Our results identified (i) the trade-offs and unintended negative consequences for poor rural households’ livelihoods of current silo approaches, (ii) mechanisms for sustainably enhancing household water, energy and food security, whilst (iii) providing direction for achieving SDGs 2, 3, 6 and 7.
11 Nhamo, Luxon; Mabhaudhi, T.; Mpandeli, S. 2019. A model to integrate and assess water-energy-food nexus performance: South Africa case study. Paper presented at the 3rd World Irrigation Forum (WIF3) on Development for Water, Food and Nutrition Security in a Competitive Environment, Bali, Indonesia, 1-7 September 2019. 10p.
Water resources ; Energy resources ; Food security ; Nexus ; Models ; Water availability ; Water productivity ; Agricultural productivity ; Climate change adaptation ; Resilience ; Living standards ; Sustainability ; Indicators ; Case studies / South Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049339)
(0.70 MB)
The main limiting factor impeding the operationalisation of the WEF nexus has been lack of metrics and tools to translate the concept into a fully-fledged operational framework to support policy and decision-making. This study developed a WEF nexus model by (i) defining WEF nexus sustainability indicators, and (ii) calculating composite indices for those indicators to establish numerical relationships among WEF nexus resources using South Africa as a case study. The composite indices show WEF nexus performance as well as monitoring and evaluation of WEF resources management. The indicators were integrated through the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) in a multicriteria decision-making (MCDM). The established quantitative relationships indicate resource utilisation, management and performance through a spider graph to illustrate WEF nexus performance, providing a general overview of the level of interactions, interrelationships and inter-connectedness of resources. The shape of the spider graph is determined by the level of the interdependencies and interactions among the WEF nexus sectors, whose management is viewed either as sustainable or unsustainable depending on the classification of the developed integrated index. The spider graph for South Africa showed an over-emphasis on food self-sufficiency and water productivity at the expense of other sectors. The deformed shape of the spider graph is a demonstration of the sectoral or “silo” approach in resource management. The calculated integrated WEF nexus index of 0.203 for South Africa classified the country under the low sustainability category. The developed model is a decision support tool that provides evidence for interventions in priority areas. The model demonstrates the capabilities of the WEF nexus to evaluate synergies and trade-offs in a systematic and integrated way to increases efficiency and productivity in resource management for sustainable development.
12 Mabhaudhi, T.; Mpandeli, S.; Nhamo, Luxon; Senzanje, A.; Chimonyo, V. G. P.; Modi, A.T. 2019. Options for improving agricultural water productivity under increasing water scarcity in South Africa. Paper presented at the 3rd World Irrigation Forum (WIF3) on Development for Water, Food and Nutrition Security in a Competitive Environment, Bali, Indonesia, 1-7 September 2019. 14p.
Agricultural production ; Water productivity ; Water scarcity ; Climate change ; Risks ; Drought ; Rainwater harvesting ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Water management ; Strategies ; Irrigation methods ; Water use / South Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049340)
(0.35 MB)
South Africa is ranked among the thirty driest countries in the world, a challenge that is negatively affecting agricultural production. Other challenges such as population growth, rural-urban migration, changing food preferences and drought exacerbate pressure on agricultural water productivity. The review critically assessed the different considerations for increasing agricultural water productivity under water scarce conditions in South Africa. While under these conditions, irrigation may seem an obvious solution to increasing agricultural water productivity as a response to frequent droughts and mid-season dry spells. However, considerations on the availability of water and energy for irrigation expansion and the accessibility of irrigation services to different farming groups in the country. It is generally argued that irrigation is an expensive option and not necessarily readily accessible to most farmers.
There are prospects for tapping into South Africa’s groundwater resources but the extent to which they can contribute to expanding area under irrigation is contested given the challenges of quantifying and pumping the water. Most smallholder farmers currently lack access to water, energy, infrastructure and technical skills to irrigate thus making irrigation a challenging option in this sector. An alternative would be to explore rainwater harvesting and soil water conservation technologies, which involve inducing, collecting, storing and conserving runoff water for agriculture. The drawbacks to this are that, apart from scale issues, rainfall is becoming more erratic and droughts more frequent and hence the feasibility of this approach under frequent drought could be challenged.
There are prospects for tapping into South Africa’s groundwater resources but the extent to which they can contribute to expanding area under irrigation is contested given the challenges of quantifying and pumping the water. Most smallholder farmers currently lack access to water, energy, infrastructure and technical skills to irrigate thus making irrigation a challenging option in this sector. An alternative would be to explore rainwater harvesting and soil water conservation technologies, which involve inducing, collecting, storing and conserving runoff water for agriculture. The drawbacks to this are that, apart from scale issues, rainfall is becoming more erratic and droughts more frequent and hence the feasibility of this approach under frequent drought could be challenged.
13 Mpandeli, S.; Nhamo, Luxon; Moeletsi, M.; Masupha, T.; Magidi, J.; Tshikolomo, K.; Liphadzi, S.; Naidoo, D.; Mabhaudhi, T.. 2019. Assessing climate change and adaptive capacity at local scale using observed and remotely sensed data. Weather and Climate Extremes, 26:100240. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2019.100240]
Climate change adaptation ; Assessment ; Remote sensing ; Drought ; Rain ; Temperature ; Water stress ; Resilience ; Risk reduction ; Strategies ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Agricultural production ; Heat stress ; Vegetation index / South Africa / Limpopo / Capricorn
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049413)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212094719301380/pdfft?md5=07c6303aa103fe96c44be00ac162f087&pid=1-s2.0-S2212094719301380-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049413.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049413.pdf
(4.02 MB) (4.02 MB)
Climate variability and change impacts are manifesting through declining rainfall totals and increasing frequency and intensity of droughts, floods and heatwaves. These environmental changes are affecting mostly rural populations in developing countries due to low adaptive capacity and high reliance on natural systems for their livelihoods. While broad adaptation strategies exist, there is need to contextualise them to local scale. This paper assessed rainfall, temperature and water stress trends over time in Capricorn District, South Africa, using Standardized Precipitation Index, Thermal Heat Index, and Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) as a proxy of water stress. Observed rainfall and temperature data from 1960 to 2015 was used to assess climatic variations, and NDVI was used to assess water stress from 2000 to 2019. Results show a marked increase in drought frequency and intensity, decreasing rainfall totals accompanied by increasing temperatures, and increasing water stress during the summer season. Long-term climatic changes are a basis to develop tailor-made adaptation strategies. Eighty-one percent of the cropped area in Capricorn District is rainfed and under smallholder farming, exposing the district to climate change risks. As the intensity of climate change varies both in space and time, adaptation strategies also vary depending on exposure and intensity. A combination of observed and remotely sensed climatic data is vital in developing tailor-made adaptation strategies.
14 Nhamo, Luxon; Ebrahim, Girma Yimer; Mabhaudhi, T.; Mpandeli, S.; Magombeyi, Manuel; Chitakira, M.; Magidi, J.; Sibanda, M. 2020. An assessment of groundwater use in irrigated agriculture using multi-spectral remote sensing. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 115:102810. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2019.102810]
Groundwater assessment ; Crop water use ; Irrigated farming ; Remote sensing ; Climate change ; Resilience ; Water management ; Water productivity ; Evapotranspiration ; Estimation ; Irrigated land ; Satellite imagery ; Dry season / South Africa / Limpopo / Venda-Gazankulu
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049420)
(2.23 MB)
Declining water resources in dry regions requires sustainable groundwater management as trends indicate increasing groundwater use, but without accountability. The sustainability of groundwater is uncertain, as little is known about its extent and availability, a challenge that requires a quantitative assessment of its current use. This study assessed groundwater use for irrigated agriculture in the Venda-Gazankulu area of Limpopo Province in South Africa using crop evapotranspiration and irrigated crop area derived from the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI). Evapotranspiration data was derived from the Water Productivity through Open access of Remotely sensed Actual Evapotranspiration and Interception (WaPOR) dataset (250 m resolution), and irrigated areas were characterised using dry season NDVI data derived from Landsat 8. Field surveys were conducted for four years to assess accuracy and for post-classification correction. Daily ET for the dry season (May to September) was developed from the actual ET for the irrigated areas. The irrigated areas were overlaid on the ET map to calculate ET for only irrigated land parcels. Groundwater use during the 2015 dry period was 3627.49 billion m3 and the irrigated area during the same period was 26% of cultivated land. About 82 435 ha of cultivated area was irrigated using 44 million m3 /ha of water, compared to 186.93 million m3 /ha on a rainfed area of 237 847 ha. Groundwater management is essential for enhancing resilience in arid regions in the advent of water scarcity.
15 Nhamo, L.; Mabhaudhi, T.; Mpandeli, S.; Dickens, Chris; Nhemachena, C.; Senzanje, A.; Naidoo, D.; Liphadzi, S.; Modi, A. T. 2020. An integrative analytical model for the water-energy-food nexus: South Africa case study. Environmental Science and Policy, 109:15-24. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2020.04.010]
Decision support systems ; Water availability ; Energy ; Food security ; Nexus ; Water productivity ; Climate change adaptation ; Resilience ; Sustainable Development Goals ; Development indicators ; Living standards ; Agricultural productivity ; Cereals ; Models ; Performance evaluation ; Case studies / South Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049710)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901119315618/pdfft?md5=6a58952488ffee2f1221f91a0beb1156&pid=1-s2.0-S1462901119315618-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049710.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049710.pdf
(0.89 MB) (912 KB)
The missing link between cross-sectoral resource management and full-scale adoption of the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus has been the lack of analytical tools that provide evidence for policy and decision-making. This study defined WEF nexus sustainability indicators, from where an analytical model was developed to manage WEF resources in an integrated manner using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The model established quantitative relationships among WEF sectors, simplifying the intricate interlinkages among resources, using South Africa as a case study. A spider graph was used to illustrate sector performance as related to others, whose management is viewed either as sustainable or unsustainable. The model was then applied to assess progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals in South Africa. The estimated integrated indices of 0.155 and 0.203 for 2015 and 2018, respectively, classify South Africa’s management of resources as marginally sustainable. The model is a decision support tool that highlights priority areas for intervention.
16 Nhamo, Luxon; Magidi, J.; Nyamugama, A.; Clulow, A. D.; Sibanda, M.; Chimonyo, V. G. P.; Mabhaudhi, T.. 2020. Prospects of improving agricultural and water productivity through unmanned aerial vehicles. Agriculture, 10(7):256. [doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10070256]
Agricultural productivity ; Water productivity ; Unmanned aerial vehicles ; Water management ; Plant health ; Crop yield ; Monitoring ; Vegetation index ; Remote sensing ; Evapotranspiration ; Water stress ; Irrigation scheduling ; Mapping ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Models ; Disaster risk reduction ; Resilience ; Satellite imagery ; Cost benefit analysis
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049892)
(1.05 MB) (1.05 MB)
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are an alternative to costly and time-consuming traditional methods to improve agricultural water management and crop productivity through the acquisition, processing, and analyses of high-resolution spatial and temporal crop data at field scale. UAVs mounted with multispectral and thermal cameras facilitate the monitoring of crops throughout the crop growing cycle, allowing for timely detection and intervention in case of any anomalies. The use of UAVs in smallholder agriculture is poised to ensure food security at household level and improve agricultural water management in developing countries. This review synthesises the use of UAVs in smallholder agriculture in the smallholder agriculture sector in developing countries. The review highlights the role of UAV derived normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) in assessing crop health, evapotranspiration, water stress and disaster risk reduction. The focus is to provide more accurate statistics on irrigated areas, crop water requirements and to improve water productivity and crop yield. UAVs facilitate access to agro-meteorological information at field scale and in near real-time, important information for irrigation scheduling and other on-field decision-making. The technology improves smallholder agriculture by facilitating access to information on crop biophysical parameters in near real-time for improved preparedness and operational decision-making. Coupled with accurate meteorological data, the technology allows for precise estimations of crop water requirements and crop evapotranspiration at high spatial resolution. Timely access to crop health information helps inform operational decisions at the farm level, and thus, enhancing rural livelihoods and wellbeing.
17 Hawkins, P.; Geza, W.; Mabhaudhi, T.; Sutherland, C.; Queenan, K.; Dangour, A.; Scheelbeek, P. 2022. Dietary and agricultural adaptations to drought among smallholder farmers in South Africa: a qualitative study. Weather and Climate Extremes, 35:100413. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2022.100413]
Drought ; Climate change adaptation ; Dietary diversity ; Agriculture ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Coping strategies ; Food systems ; Food consumption ; Food insecurity ; Vulnerability ; Rural communities ; Resilience / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal / Msinga / Richmond / Umbumbulu
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050972)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221209472200007X/pdfft?md5=e32af5d9ee4281d00ea13ff36c307b87&pid=1-s2.0-S221209472200007X-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H050972.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H050972.pdf
(3.14 MB) (3.14 MB)
Building resilience to environmental change is an integral part of long-term climate adaptation planning and local policy. There is an increased understanding of the impact of climate change on global crop production however, little focus has been given to local adaptation pathways and rural smallholder community responses, especially regarding food security. It is becoming increasingly evident that local level decision-making plays a vital role in reducing vulnerability to environmental change. This research aimed to qualitatively investigate coping and adaptive strategies adopted by smallholder farming households to respond to the impacts of drought in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Focus group discussions (n = 7) consisting of 5–9 participants and individual interviews (n = 9) using pre-tested topic guides, involving a total of 57 adults were conducted in rural areas of drought-affected districts: Msinga, Richmond and Umbumbulu of KwaZulu-Natal, in July 2018. The data were analysed using thematic analysis in NVivo 12. Thematic analysis identified three principal themes: 1. Perceived effects of droughts on the local food system and diets; 2. Current coping strategies; and 3. Enablers for successful adaptation. All sites reported a change in food consumption habits, with the majority perceiving drought to be the main driver behind a shift from vegetable-based to starch-based diets and decreased animal source food consumption. Only short-term coping strategies were implemented across the study sites. However, knowledge of long-term adaptation strategies existed but was unattainable to most respondents. Recommendations of perceived context-specific long-term adaptation strategies that could be used at a local scale were communicated by the respondents. However, they would need external help to actualize them. A need exists to support smallholder communities’ short-term response methods to drought to achieve more holistic resilience and successful adaptation. Short-term adaptation strategies, if implemented alone, often have significant tradeoffs with longer-term adaptation and building resilience. This study highlights the need for targeted, contextualised policy solutions to improve smallholder productivity during drought through a strategic combination of both short- and longer-term adaptation measures, i.e. short-term adaptation should be guided by a long-term adaptation strategy. Proper planning, including the use of climate scenarios combined with information on nutritional status, is needed to develop context-specific and transformative adaptation strategies. These strategies should aim to strengthen resilience at a local level and should be included as policy recommendations.
18 Kushitor, S. B.; Drimie, S.; Davids, R.; Delport, C.; Hawkes, C.; Mabhaudhi, T.; Ngidi, M.; Slotow, R.; Pereira, L. M. 2022. The complex challenge of governing food systems: the case of South African food policy. Food Security, 14p. (Online first) [doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-022-01258-z]
Food systems ; Food policies ; Governance ; Food security ; Nutrition security ; Sustainable Development Goals ; Monitoring and evaluation ; Coordination ; Stakeholders ; Government departments ; Environmental factors ; Social protection ; Health ; Land reform ; Education ; Economic development ; Rural development ; Agricultural production / South Africa
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050973)
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s12571-022-01258-z.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H050973.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H050973.pdf
(1.50 MB) (1.50 MB)
International experience reveals that food policy development often occurs in silos and offers few tangible mechanisms to address the interlinked, systemic issues underpinning food and nutrition insecurity. This paper investigated what South African government policies cover in terms of different aspects of the food system, who is responsible for them, and how coordinated they are. Policy objectives were categorized into seven policy domains relevant to food systems: agriculture, environment, social protection, health, land, education, economic development, and rural development. Of the ninety-one policies reviewed from 1947–2017, six were identified as being "overarching" with goals across all the domains. About half of the policies focused on agriculture and the environment, reflecting an emphasis on agricultural production. Policies were formulated and implemented in silos. As a result, learning from implementation, and adjusting to improve impact has been limited. Particularly important is that coordination during implementation, across these complex domains, has been partial. In order to achieve its stated food and nutrition outcomes, including Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2, South Africa needs to translate its policies into tangible, practical plans and processes guided by effective coordination and alignment. Key recommendations are practically to align policies to a higher-level "food goal", establish better coordination mechanisms, consolidate an effective monitoring and evaluation approach to address data gaps and encourage learning for adaptive implementation. Actively engaging the existing commitments to the SDGs would draw stated international commitments together to meet the constitutional commitment to food rights into an overarching food and nutrition security law.
19 Masenyama, A.; Mutanga, O.; Dube, T.; Bangira, T.; Sibanda, M.; Mabhaudhi, T.. 2022. A systematic review on the use of remote sensing technologies in quantifying grasslands ecosystem services. GIScience and Remote Sensing, 59(1):1000-1025. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/15481603.2022.2088652]
Grasslands ; Ecosystem services ; Remote sensing ; Technology ; Earth observation satellites ; Hydrological modelling ; Systematic reviews ; Biomass ; Leaf area index ; Canopy ; Vegetation index ; Sensors ; Water management ; Monitoring ; Machine learning ; Forecasting
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H051246)
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15481603.2022.2088652
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H051246.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H051246.pdf
(3.82 MB) (3.82 MB)
The last decade has seen considerable progress in scientific research on vegetation ecosystem services. While much research has focused on forests and wetlands, grasslands also provide a variety of different provisioning, supporting, cultural, and regulating services. With recent advances in remote sensing technology, there is a possibility that Earth observation data could contribute extensively to research on grassland ecosystem services. This study conducted a systematic review on progress, emerging gaps, and opportunities on the application of remote sensing technologies in quantifying all grassland ecosystem services including those that are related to water. The contribution of biomass, Leaf Area Index (LAI), and Canopy Storage Capacity (CSC) as water-related ecosystem services derived from grasslands was explored. Two hundred and twenty-two peer-reviewed articles from Web of Science, Scopus, and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers were analyzed. About 39% of the studies were conducted in Asia with most of the contributions coming from China while a few studies were from the global south regions such as Southern Africa. Overall, forage provision, climate regulation, and primary production were the most researched grassland ecosystem services in the context of Earth observation data applications. About 39 Earth observation sensors were used in the literature to map grassland ecosystem services and MODIS had the highest utilization frequency. The most widely used vegetation indices for mapping general grassland ecosystem services in literature included the red and near-infrared sections of the electromagnetic spectrum. Remote sensing algorithms used within the retrieved literature include process-based models, machine learning algorithms, and multivariate techniques. For water-related grassland ecosystem services, biomass, CSC, and LAI were the most prominent proxies characterized by remotely sensed data for understanding evapotranspiration, infiltration, run-off, soil water availability, groundwater restoration and surface water balance. An understanding of such hydrological processes is crucial in providing insights on water redistribution and balance within grassland ecosystems which is important for water management.
20 Masanganise, J.; Kunz, R.; Clulow, A. D.; Mabhaudhi, T.; Savage, M. J. 2022. Evapotranspiration estimates of soybean using surface renewal: comparison with crop coefficient approach. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 128:103244. (Online first) [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2022.103244]
Evapotranspiration ; Estimation ; Soybeans ; Energy balance ; Sensible heat ; Latent heat ; Micrometeorology ; Crops ; Plant developmental stages ; Soil water content ; Weather data ; Air temperature / South Africa / KwaZulu-Natal
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H051442)
(0.88 MB)
Evapotranspiration (ET) is widely considered the main consumptive water use in agricultural production and its accurate determination enables crop producers to make informed decisions. Field experiments were conducted in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa to estimate soybean ET from sensible and latent heat flux obtained using the surface renewal (SR) method. Two versions of the SR method (SR2) were used. One version combines SR analysis with Monin-Obukhov similarity theory (MOST), hereinafter referred to as SRMOST. The other is a combination of SR analysis and dissipation theory (DT) referred to as SRDT. The ET estimated using SRMOST and SRDT (ETSRMOST and ETSRDT respectively) were compared to the ET obtained using the standard crop coefficient (Kc) approach (ETKc). During flowering, pod formation and seed filling, both SRMOST and SRDT methods slightly overestimated ET obtained using Kc approach with an average normalised root mean square error (NRMSE) of 23.4% and an average normalised mean absolute error (NMAE) of 10.1% for SRMOST and 21.7 and 9.4% for SRDT respectively. During senescence and at maturity, SRMOST and SRDT slightly underestimated ET compared to Kc approach. The average statistical measures for SRMOST were NRMSE = 21.0% and NMAE = 9.2%. Correspondingly, the statistics for SRDT were 17.5 and 7.1% respectively. Both SR2 methods estimated the minimum ET more accurately compared to the maximum. The SRDT method was more in agreement with Kc approach. Surface renewal is robust, less expensive than other micrometeorological techniques and a reliable method for deriving evapotranspiration of soybean when crop coefficients are problematic.
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