Your search found 12 records
1 Nakawuka, Prossie; Okwany, Romulus O.; Peters, R. T.; Desta, K.; Sadeghi, H. 2014. Efficacy of boom systems in controlling runoff under center pivots and linear move irrigation systems. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 30(5):797-801. [doi: https://doi.org/10.13031/aea.30.10540]
Irrigation systems ; Sprinkler irrigation ; Soils ; Infiltration ; Surface runoff ; Water conservation
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H046678)
(0.50 MB)
Center pivot and linear move irrigation systems’ design and operation are primarily limited by soil infiltration rates. Surface runoff can be a problem on some soils whose in-take rates are low. Additional design and management factors must be considered to prevent runoff in these systems. Boom systems have been suggested to decrease runoff by reducing the water application rate of center pivots and linear move systems. In this study, runoff from plots irrigated with typical in-line sprinklers was compared to runoff from plots irrigated with off-set boom systems. Both inline sprinkler drops and the boom systems were fitted on the same linear move system. Sprinkler nozzle type and size was the same for both in-line drops and the off-set boom drops. Runoff was measured for five irrigation events applied on bare soil during three weeks in October 2013. Differences in runoff between the drop types were significant for the second, third, fourth, and fifth irrigation events. In-line drops generated between 3% and 24% more runoff than the boom systems during the test period. Runoff as a percentage of irrigation water applied increased with each irrigation event for both drop types. The increase however was higher for the in-line drops than for the boom systems. Increase in runoff with increase in sprinkler irrigation events was mainly attributed to soil surface sealing which resulted from sprinkler drop impact.
2 Nakawuka, Prossie; Peters, R. T.; Okwany, Romulus O.; Sadeghi, H. S. 2014. Efficacy of boom systems in limiting runoff on center pivots. In USA. Irrigation Association. Technical session proceedings on Irrigation Show Education Conference, Arizona, USA, 17-21 November 2014. Arlington, VA, USA: Irrigation Association. pp.1-8.
Irrigation methods ; Irrigation systems ; Sprinkler irrigation ; Soil surface properties ; Infiltration ; Runoff
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H046820)
Center pivot and linear move irrigation systems’ design and operation are primarily limited by soil infiltration rates. Boom systems have been suggested to improve infiltration and decrease runoff by reducing the instantaneous water application rate of center pivots and linear move systems. In this research project, we compared runoff from plots irrigated with typical in line sprinklers on a linear move irrigation system with those irrigated with off set boom systems. In line drops consistently generated greater runoff than ‘the boom systems in all of the irrigation events. Differences in runoff between the drop types were significantly different for the second, third, fourth and fifth irrigation events. The runoff differences from in line drops ranged from 3% to 24% greater than the boom systems. Runoff as a percentage of irrigation water applied increased with each irrigation event on both drop types.
3 Yilak, D. L.; Tilahun, S. A.; Schmitter, Petra; Nakawuka, Prossie; Enku, T.; Kassawmar, N. T.; Steenhuis, T. S. 2015. Determining the groundwater potential for agricultural use in Ethiopian Highlands [Abstract only] Paper presented at the 10th Alexander von Humboldt Conference 2015 on Water-Food-Energy River and Society in the Tropics. EGU Topical Conference Series, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 18-20 November 2015. 2p.
Agriculture ; Groundwater irrigation ; Groundwater recharge ; Water levels ; Water use ; Highlands ; Irrigation water ; Water levels ; Watersheds ; Sustainability ; Case studies / Ethiopia / Ethiopian Highlands / Robit-Bata watershed / Lake Tana
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047278)
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The Ethiopian government has declared the Lake Tana - Beles region to be a growth corridor and irrigation development is one of the priorities. Since the dry season river flow is limited, groundwater has the greatest potential for increasing irrigation in the near future. The main drawback is lack of information on sustainable groundwater use and specifically the ground water potential. Therefore the objective of this research is to calculate the annual groundwater recharge. The study was conducted in Robit-Bata, an experimental watershed of 911 ha, located at the south-eastern edge of Lake Tana. Farmers have excavated more than 300 hand dug wells for irrigation use from which, we used 50 wells for water table fluctuation observations for one year starting from April, 2014. Daily Precipitation was recorded for the same period. The annual recharge was estimated using the water – level fluctuation method. Specific yield was defined as the difference of porosity and field capacity of the subsurface formation. The annual average areal groundwater recharge was 640 mm/year, which is 41% of the rainfall and ranged from 50mm to 390mm per week for the various locations in the watershed. The greatest recharge amounts were found in the plains at the foot of the hills and river course areas consisting mostly weathered basalt rock. At those locations the groundwater rose steadily during the rainy monsoon phase. Smaller amount of recharge occurred both near the top of the hills with tough rock formation and in the, flat areas near to stream with sandy and clay deposits and groundwater at, shallow well depth. Our study indicates that the current use of the groundwater seems sustainable. Further research is required for optimized utilization of the limited groundwater resources for irrigation development to meet the food security of the community.
4 Yilak, D. L.; Tilahun, S. A.; Schmitter, Petra; Nakawuka, Prossie; Haile, Alemseged Tamiru; Kassawmar, N. T.; Guzman, C. D.; Steenhuis, T. S. 2015. Adaptation of the SCS [Soil Conservation Service] runoff equation for a (Sub) humid monsoon climate. Paper presented at the 3rd OpenWater Symposium, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 16-17 September 2015. 19p.
Climate change ; Monsoon climate ; Humid climate ; Runoff ; Adaptation ; Soil conservation ; Soil moisture ; Watersheds ; Water shortage ; Water balance ; Hydrology ; Models ; Highlands ; River basins ; Rain ; Runoff / Ethiopia / Ethiopian Highland / Maybar Watershed / Anjeni Watershed / Blue Nile Basin
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047279)
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The Soil Conservation Service Runoff equation was developed and tested for the temperate climate in the United States. Application to the monsoon climates has been only partially successful. The objective to adapt the SCS equation to a monsoon climate equation is to predict watershed runoff. The adaptation is based on the fact that in many humid areas the main mechanism for direct runoff is saturation excess and in monsoon climates the contributing area expands as a function of the cumulative effective rainfall ( Pe). This then translate in smaller watershed storage (S) in the equation. When estimating runoff contributing area within a watershed and assessing the runoff mechanisms, we have used the original concept of SCS-CN approach in a 113 ha Anjeni and 113ha Maybar Watersheds in the headwaters of the Blue Nile Basin, North Ethiopian highland. Analysis was done at daily, weekly and biweekly base using nine years of hydrological data (1988-97) by classifying the rainfall seasons in to six based on the seasonal cumulative of effective rainfall (Pe). The initial abstraction (Ia) was taken to be equal to the evapotranspiration loss (E) computed by Thornthwaite-Mather water balance method in replacement of the 20% of the potential storage (S). Effective rainfall (Pe) is the difference of total rainfall and Ia. The model performed more as the seasonal cumulative Pe is increased indicating that runoff responses occurred as the watershed saturated. The proportion of runoff contributing area (Af) increased linearly until the cumulative Pe up to nearly 500mm and then the watershed reaches in equilibrium for addition increase of Pe, which is in line with the concept of partial source area hydrology.
5 Yiak, D. L.; Tilahun, S. A.; Schmitter, Petra; Nakawuka, Prossie; Steenhuis, T. S. 2015. Groundwater recharge of Robit - Bata Experimental Watershed, Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia [Abstract only] Paper presented at the 3rd International Conference on the Advancements of Science and Technology [ICAST], Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, 8-9 May 2015. 1p.
Groundwater recharge ; Groundwater irrigation ; Watersheds ; Water use ; Water table ; River basins ; Rain / Ethiopia / Lake Tana Basin / Robit - Bata Experimental Watershed
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047313)
(0.04 MB)
Irrigation development is a policy priority for the Laka Tana basin. However available baseflow can irrigate less than 3% of area. The irrigated area can be increased from water stored in constructed reservoirs, pumping water from Lake Tana and by using groundwater. While groundwater has the greatest potential for increasing irrigation in the near future, the main drawback is a lack of information on sustainable groundwater use and specifically the ground water recharge. Therefore the objective of this research is to calculate the annual recharge to the ground water. The study is conducted in Robit-Bata, an experimental watershed of 911 ha, located at the south-eastern edge of Lake Tana. Farmers have excavated more than 300 hand dug wells for irrigation and we used 50 shallow groundwater wells and observed water table fluctuation and precipitation for the past one year. The annual recharge was estimated using water – level fluctuation method. Specific yield was taken to be the difference of porosity and field capacity of the subsurface formation. The annual average areal groundwater recharge of the watershed was 200 mm/year, which is 12% of the rainfall and ranged from 80mm to 500mm for the various locations in the watershed. The greatest recharge amounts were found at the foot of the hillside in river course plane areas consisting mostly weathered basalt rock. Here the groundwater was up to 15 m deep and rose steadily during the rainy monsoon phase. Smaller amount of recharge occurred both near the top of the hills with tough rock formation and in the, flat areas near to stream sandy and clay deposits and groundwater at, shallow well depth. Our study indicates that the current use of the groundwater is sustainable, but will become unsustainable if many more wells are constructed. Sufficiency and sustainable use of the shallow groundwater needs further research.
6 Schmitter, Petra; Haileslassie, Amare; Nakawuka, Prossie; Gebregziabher, Gebrehaweria; Tesema, M.; Tegegne, D.; Abdela, M.; Yilak, D. L.; Tilahun, S.; Ayana, M.; Langan, Simon. 2016. The importance of Ethiopian soils in irrigation and overall watershed management [Abstract only] Paper presented at the Strategic Forum on Sustainable development in Africa: Opportunities and Pitfalls for Universities and NGO’s, Heverlee, Belgium, 15 January 2016. 1p.
Watershed management ; Irrigation methods ; Surface irrigation ; Groundwater irrigation ; Irrigation water ; Water quality ; Water management ; Soil sampling ; Soil moisture ; Agronomic practices ; Crop production ; Tillage / Ethiopia
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047383)
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Irrigation has a large potential to increase agricultural output and yield per unit area. However, the long term sustainability increased production, together with degradation of the soils (and associated water bodies) in irrigated areas may be irreparably damaged by inappropriate watering schedules. In Ethiopia, surface and groundwater irrigation has been promoted intensively throughout the country. While many projects focus on individual or scheme level water access, very little is known about the sustainability of irrigation in Ethiopia. Aside, from water quantity the quality of irrigation water has a significant impact on soil stability and its chemical properties. In the Ziway, a very important irrigation area in Oromia, soils are increasingly becoming sodic due to the large irrigation quantities and the poor water quality. The International Water Management Institute focusses through various research for development projects on improving irrigation water management, increasing groundwater recharge and assessing the environmental impact of irrigation for various soils throughout the Amhara, Oromia and SNNPR region. Irrigation scheduling tools have been introduced at individual and scheme based small holder farms for the irrigation of high value horticultural and fodder crops to improve water and crop productivity and reduce nutrient leaching. Simultaneously groundwater recharge experiments were carried out using deep tillage and soil & water conservation practices in the rainy season. In these studies, soils are sampled, irrigation quantified, soil moisture measured and standard agronomic practices monitored. Additionally, socio-economic data are being collected on household composition, land holding, labor involved in as well as income generated by the various technologies. Preliminary results showed that crop productivity was not effect while reducing water between 18-35% as function of the prevailing soil types. For the groundwater recharge studies lowest runoff values and highest crop productivity values were observed in the deep tillage plots compared to zero and normal tillage. The socio-economic as well as biophysical data are used in field as well as watershed models to assess the environmental and economic impact of various irrigation scenarios throughout the agro-ecological zones.
7 Tesema, M.; Schmitter, Petra; Nakawuka, Prossie; Tilahun, S. A.; Steenhuis, T.; Langan, Simon. 2016. Evaluating irrigation technologies to improve crop and water productivity of onion in Dangishta watershed during the dry monsoon phase. Paper presented at the International Conference of the Advancement of Science and Technology, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, 17-18 July 2016. 10p.
Crop production ; Crop management ; Water productivity ; Water use efficiency ; Water conservation ; Water management ; Onions ; Monsoon climate ; Dry season ; Watershed services ; Wet cultivation ; Soil moisture ; Soil water balance ; Rhizosphere ; Rain ; Agriculture ; Fertilizer application / Ethiopia / Dangishta Watershed
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H047635)
(611 KB)
8 Nakawuka, Prossie; Langan, S.; Schmitter, Petra; Barron, Jennie. 2018. A review of trends, constraints and opportunities of smallholder irrigation in East Africa. Global Food Security, 17:196-212. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.10.003]
Food security ; Irrigation management ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Agricultural production ; Poverty ; Pumps ; Land tenure ; Land management ; Water resources ; Water management ; State intervention ; Nongovernmental organizations ; Rainwater harvesting ; Cultivation ; Population growth ; Crop production ; Livestock production ; Markets ; Seed ; Urbanization ; Traditional farming ; Capacity building ; Farmer-led irrigation ; Training / East Africa / Ethiopia / Kenya / Tanzania / Uganda
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048965)
Smallholder irrigation expansion would signi cantly increase agricultural production, and reduce food insecurity and poverty levels in East Africa. This paper reviews literature on trends, constraints and opportunities of smallholder irrigation in four East African countries: Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. Irrigation development has been slow in these countries, and has been mainly through traditional schemes. Recently, individual irrigation technologies such as small motorized pumps, drip kits, treadle pumps, rope and washer pumpsarebeing promoted.Adoption ofthesetechnologiesandexpansion ofsmallholder irrigationhoweverface a number of challenges including land tenure issues; lack of access to appropriate irrigation technologies, improved agricultural inputs, reliable markets, nance and credit services, and research support; poor transport and communication infrastructures; poor irrigation water management; poor extension systems; and the over dependence on national governments, NGOs and donors for support. Despite these challenges, opportunities exist for smallholder irrigation expansion in East Africa. Such opportunities include: high untapped irrigation potential; rainwater harvesting to improve water availability; high commitment of national governments, NGOs and donors to smallholder irrigation expansion; low cost irrigation technologies adaptable to local conditions; traditional schemes rehabilitation;growing urbanization; and increaseduse ofmobilephones thatcanbeused to disseminate information.
9 Muche, H.; Abdela, M.; Schmitter, Petra; Nakawuka, Prossie; Tilahun, S. A.; Steenhuis, T.; Langan, Simon. 2017. Application of deep tillage and Berken Maresha for hardpan sites to improve infiltration and crop productivity [Abstract only] Paper presented at the 5th International Conference on the Advancement of Science and Technology, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia. 1p.
Crop production ; Crop yield ; Productivity ; Infiltration ; Tillage ; Penetration ; Grain ; Maize ; Erosion ; Runoff / Ethiopia / Blue Nile River
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H048309)
Long term use of Maresha plow, a conventional plow pulled by oxen, has resulted in the formation of a restrictive layer thereby limiting water movement and aeration as well as root zone penetration in the soil profile. Several studies have shown that improved tillage practices can positively affect infiltration and aeration resulting in increased rainwater use efficiency and agricultural production. However, rather limited information is available about the use of the Berken plough as a potential alternative for tillage practices. We studied the impact of improved tillage practices on infiltration, erosion, runoff and crop productivity during the rainy period of 2016 in Robit-Bata watershed located in upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia. The experiments were carried out in Maize fields where four tillage treatments were compared: (i) no-till (NT), no ploughing; (ii) conventional (CT), plots tilled three times using oxen driven Maresha, (iii) deep (DT), manual digging up to 60 cm using a mattock and (iv) Berken tillage (BT), plots tilled three times using an oxen driven Berken plough. Soil physical parameters (e.g. penetration resistance, bulk density) where measured before tillage treatment and after the cropping season. Additionally, crop performance (plant height, yield, residual biomass and root depth) and measurements on infiltration, sediment yield and runoff were collected. Tillage depth was significantly higher in DT (60 cm) followed by BT (27.58 cm) and CT (18.13cm). At the end of the season, the measured penetration resistance was significantly (p<0.01) lower at 20 cm depth in the DT and BT plots compared to the NT and the CT treatments. Infiltration rates increased from 115.2 mm hr-1(NT), 120 mm hr-1(CT) to 242.4 mm hr-1(DT), 261.6 mm hr-1(BT) (p<0.01) . The total runoff depth significantly decreased in the DT (29.46 mm) and BT treatments (33.53 mm) as compared to the CT (71.45 mm) and NT (98.77 mm) (p < 0.05). Similarly higher sediment yields were recorded for the CT (5.5 t ha-1) and NT (6.6 t ha-1) compared to the DT (2.6 tha-1) and BT (2.6 t ha-1) plots. Deeper tillage in DT and BT treatments as well as the presence of invisible barriers along the contour in Berken system could be the reason for the observed increase in filtration and the reduction of runoff and soil loss. On the other hand, the root length under DT was (> 50cm) followed by BT (>40cm) and NT and CT (both < 30 cm). Grain yield of maize was significantly lower in the NT (2.6 t ha-1) compared to yields measured in the CT (3.8 t ha-1), DT (3.8t ha-1) and BT (4.0 t ha-1) treatments (p <0.05). Results show that improved tillage practices such as deep tillage or Berken plough could increase permeability and herefore root penetration and agricultural productivity whilst decreasing erosion and runoff in the Ethiopian Highlands. The adoption of these techniques in the Ethiopian highlands could improve the sustainability of rainfed agriculture and reduce the environmental impacts associated with traditional tillage practices.
10 Hagos, Fitsum; Nakawuka, Prossie; Schmitter, Petra; Tegegne, Desalegn; Haileslassie, Amare; Barron, Jennie; Lefore, Nicole; Mupangwa, W. T. 2019. Drip irrigation and service provision of irrigation water: new ways to step into affordable small-scale irrigated agriculture. In Mekonnen, K.; Yasabu, S.; Gebremedhin, B.; Woldemeskel, E.; Tegegne, A.; Thorne, P. (Eds.). Proceedings of a Workshop and Exhibition on Promoting Productivity and Market Access Technologies and Approaches to Improve Farm Income and Livelihoods in Ethiopia: Lessons from Action Research Projects, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 8-9 December 2016. Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). pp.60-64.
Drip irrigation ; Irrigation water ; Water supply ; Irrigated farming ; Small scale farming ; Crop production ; Water productivity ; Cost benefit analysis ; Farmers / Ethiopia / Lemo Gilgel Gibe Subbasin / Upper Gana / Jawe
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H049337)
https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/102356/AR_proceedings_2019.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049337.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H049337.pdf
(0.22 MB) (6.23 MB)
11 Yimam, A. Y.; Bekele, A. M.; Nakawuka, Prossie; Schmitter, Petra; Tilahun, S. A. 2019. Rainfall-runoff process and groundwater recharge in the Upper Blue Nile Basin: the case of Dangishta Watershed. In Zimale, F. A.; Nigussie, T. E.; Fanta, S. W. (Eds.). Advances of science and technology. Proceedings of the 6th EAI International Conference on Advancement of Science and Technology (ICAST 2018), Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, 5-7 October 2018. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. pp.536-549. (Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering (LNICST) Volume 274) [doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15357-1_43]
Groundwater recharge ; Rainfall-runoff relationships ; Watersheds ; Stream flow ; Groundwater table ; Infiltration ; Soil moisture ; Estimation ; Irrigation water ; Wells ; Land use / Ethiopia / Upper Blue Nile Basin / Dangishta Watershed
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050164)
(0.56 MB)
For planning, development and management of water resources, understanding runoff mechanism and groundwater recharge is useful especially to watershed management and groundwater use for domestic and irrigation water supply. During the period of the study, stream flow, groundwater levels, infiltration tests, rainfall and soil moisture measurements were conducted. The result from these measurement showed that saturation excess runoff were dominant in Dangishta watershed while infiltration excess runoff also contributes in some parts of the upslope area. This result was also corroborated by better correlation of (R2 = 0.82) at the main outlet than upstream sub watershed outlet (R2 = 0.56) using SCS runoff equation. The result from groundwater level measurement using water table fluctuations approach showed that the total annual groundwater recharge were found to be 400 mm (i.e. 24% of the total annual rainfall) which is a significant amount likely because of the interflow processes to each well.
12 Fenta, H. M; Hussein, M. A.; Tilahun, S. A.; Nakawuka, Prossie; Steenhuis, T. S.; Barron, Jennie; Adie, A.; Blummel, M.; Schmitter, Petra. 2022. Berken plow and intercropping with pigeon pea ameliorate degraded soils with a hardpan in the Ethiopian highlands. Geoderma, 407:115523. [doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115523]
Agricultural production ; Intercropping ; Maize ; Pigeon peas ; Soil penetration resistance ; Soil degradation ; Soil analysis ; Hardpans ; Soil moisture ; Tillage ; Rainfed farming ; Runoff ; Water storage ; Highlands ; Smallholders ; Farmers ; Economic analysis ; Crop yield ; Soil chemicophysical properties ; Infiltration ; Sediment ; Watersheds / Ethiopia / Amhara / Robit Bata Watershed
(Location: IWMI HQ Call no: e-copy only Record No: H050790)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016706121006030/pdfft?md5=1a75bfbda044c2e453917450c6e20dab&pid=1-s2.0-S0016706121006030-main.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H050790.pdf
https://vlibrary.iwmi.org/pdf/H050790.pdf
(8.62 MB) (8.62 MB)
Closing the yield gap and enhancing efficiency in rainfed maize production systems in Ethiopia requires urgent action in increasing the productivity of degraded agricultural land. The degradation of land through continuous compaction and decline in the organic matter has resulted in a wide-spread formation of a hardpan that restricts deep percolation, prevents plant root development, and, ultimately can lead to increased erosion. Studies exploring practical low-cost solutions to break the hardpan are limited in Ethiopia. The main objective was to evaluate soil mechanical (i.e. modified plow or Berken plow) or biological intervention (i.e. intercropping with pigeon pea) effectiveness to enhance soil water management and crop yield of rainfed maize systems whilst reducing soil erosion and runoff. Five farm fields, each including four plots with different tillage treatments, were monitored during two rainy seasons in 2016 and 2017. The treatments were: (i) farmers practice under conventional (CT) tillage; plots tilled three times using an oxen driven local plow Maresha, (ii) no-till (NT), (iii) Berken tillage (BT), plots tilled three times using an oxen pulled Berken plow, and (iv) biological (CT + Bio), taprooted pigeon pea intercropped with maize on plots conventionally tilled. Results showed that mean tillage depth was significantly deeper in the BT (28 cm) treatment compared to CT and CT + Bio (18 cm) treatments. Measured soil penetration resistance significantly decreased up to 40 cm depth under BT and maize roots reached 1.5 times deeper compared to roots measured in the CT treatment. Under BT, the estimated water storage in the root zone was estimated at 556 mm, 1.86 times higher compared to CT, 3.11 times higher compared to NT and 0.89 times higher compared to CT + Bio. The positive effects on increased water storage and root development resulted in an average increase in maize grain (i.e. 15%, 0.95 t ha- 1 ) and residual above ground biomass (0.3%, 6.4 t ha- 1 ) leading to a positive net benefit of 138 USD ha- 1 for the BT treatment compared to the CT treatment. The negative net benefit obtained under CT and CT+Bio was mainly related to the high labor cost related to plowing, weeding, planting, and fertilizer application whilst in the NT this was related to the significantly lower maize yields. The positive effects in the BT treatment, and to some extent the CT+Bio treatment show great potential for smallholder rainfed maize systems where degraded soils with hardpans and high variability in rainfall prevail.
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